THE TREATISE on THE GREAT VIRTUE OF WISDOM
OF NAGARJUNA
(MAHAPRAJNAPARAMITASASTRA)
ETIENNE LAMOTTE
VOL.1
CHAPTERS I - XV
COMPOSED BY THE BODHISATTVE NAGARJUNA
AND TRANSLATED BY
THE TRIPITAKADHARMAcARYA KUMARAJIVA
OF THE LAND OF KOUTCHA
UNDER THE LATER TSTN
Translated from the French
By Gelongma Karma Migme Chodron
2001
PREFACE 6
ABBREVIATIONS 15
CHAPTER I: EXPLANATION OF ARGUMENTS 28
CHAPTER II: EVAM, MAYA, SRUTAM, EKASMIN, SAMAYE 65
EVAM 65
MAYA 72
SRUTAM 74
EKASMIN 77
SAMAYE 79
CHAPTER III: GENERAL EXPLANATION OF EVAM MAYA SRUTA 82
CHAPTER IV: EXPLANATION OF THE WORD BHAGAVAT 109
BHAGAVAT 109
TATHAGATA 116
ARHAT 117
SAMYAKSAMBUDDHA 118
VIDYACARANASAMPANNA 119
SUGATA 121
LOKAVID 121
ANUTTARA 122
PURUSADAMYASARATHI 122
SASTA DEVAMANUSYANAM 124
BUDDHA 125
SARVANAROTTAMA 131
OTHER EPITHETS 132
THE OMNISCIENT BUDDHA 132
CHAPTER V: RAJAGRHA 145
VIHARA 145
RAJAGRHA 146
GRDHRAKUTAPARVATA 149
THE BUDDHA'S FREQUENT SOJOURNS IN RAJAGRHA AND SRAVASTI 150
BUDDHA'S PREFERENCES FOR RAJAGRHA 157
BUDDHA'S PREFERENCES FOR GRDHRAKUTAPARVATA 166
CHAPTER VI: THE GREAT BHIKSU SAMGHA 172
SARDHAM 172
MAHAT 172
BHIKSU 173
SAMGHA 175
PANCAMATRA BHIKSUSAHASRA 176
1. ARHAT 176
2. KSENASRAVA 176
3.NISKLESA
4. SUVIMUKTACITTA, SUVIMUKTAPRAJNA
5.AJANEYA
6. MAHANAGA
7. KRTAKRTYA
8. APAHRTABHARA, BHARASAHA
9. ANUPRAPTASVAKARTHA
10. PARIKSENABHAVASAMYOJANA
11. SAMYAGAJNASUVIMUKTA
WHY THE ARHATS SURROUND THE BUDDHA
WHY ANANDA IS NOT AN ARHAT
ORIGIN OF THE NAME ANANDA
CHAPTER VII: THE FOUR ASSEMBLIES
CHAPTER VIII: THE BODHISATTVAS 200
THE PLACE OF THE BODHISATTVAS IN THE ASSEMBLY 200
DEFINITION OF BODHISATTVA 204
REGRESSING OR NON-REGRESSING BODHISATTVA 206
THE BODHISATTVA IN THE ABHIDHARMA SYSTEM 208
1. Definition 208
2. Actions producing the thirty-two marks 209
3. The six virtues 216
4. Sojourn in the Tusita heaven 225
5. The four 'vilokanas' and the entry into the womb 226
6. Birth and the thirty-two 'laksanas' 228
7. Enlightenment and Buddhahood 235
THE BODHISATTVA IN THE MAHAYANA SYSTEM 236
1. Actions producing the thirty-two marks 236
2. The six virtues 246
3. The time of appearance of the Buddhas 247
4. Place of appearance of the Buddhas 249
CHAPTER IX: THE MAHASATTV AS 254
CHAPTER X: THE QUALITIES OF THE BODHISATTVAS 259
l.DHARANIPRATILABDHA 259
2. SAMADHIGOCARA 263
3. SAMATAKSANTIPRATILABDHA 265
4. ASANGADHARAMPRATILABDHA 267
5. PANCABHIJNA 268
6. ADEYAVACANA 271
7.AKUSIDA 272
8. APAGATALABHAYASASCITTA 272
9. NIRAMISADHARMADESAKA 274
10. GAMBHIRADHARMAKSANTIPARAMGATA 275
II.VAISARADYAPRAPTA 276
12. MARAKARMASAMATIKRANTA 277
13. KARMAVARANAPRATIPRASRABDHA 282
14.PRATIITYASAMUTPANNADHARMANIRDESAKUSALA 285
15.ASAMKHYEYAKALPAPRANIDHANASUSAMARABDHA 287
16. SMITAMUKHAPURVABHILAPIN 287
17. MAHAPARSANMADHYEVAISARADYASAMANVAGATA 288
18. ANANTAKALPAKOTIDHARMADESANANIHSARANAKUSALA 290
CHAPTER XI: THE TEN COMPARISONS 293
19. THE TEN UPAMANAS 293
1. Like a magic show (mdyd) 295
2. Like a mirage (manci) 298
3. Like the moan reflected in water (udakacandra) 298
4. Like space (clkclsa) 299
5. Like an echo (pratisrutka) 301
6. Like a city of the gandharvas 302
7. Like a dream (svapna) 305
8. Like a shadow (chaya) 306
9. Like a reflection (bimha) in a mirror 308
10. Like a metamorphosis (nirmdna) [immilestaiion. appearance/ 311
20. ASANGAVAISARADYAPRATILABDHA 315
21.AVATARAKUSALA 316
CHAPTER XII: UNHINDERED MIND 318
22. APRATIHATACITTA 318
23. ADHIMATRAKSANTISAMANVAGATA 320
24. YATHATMYAVATARANUKUSALA 322
CHAPTER XIII: THE BUDDHA-FIELDS 327
25. BUDDHAKSETRAPRANIDHANAPARIGHRHETA 327
26. BUDDHANUSMRTISAMADHI 330
27.APARIMITABUDDHADHYESANAKUSALA 335
28.NANADRSTIPARYAVASTHANAKLESAPRASAMANAKUSALA 340
29. SAMADHISATASAHASRABHINIRHARAVIKRTDANAKUSALA 342
THE 22 MAIN BODHISATTVAS 344
CHAPTER XIV: EMISSION OF RAYS 347
ACT I 347
ACT II 362
ACT III 363
ACT IV 365
THE BUDDHA'S JOURNEY TO SALA 366
ACTV 375
ACT VI 40!
ACT VII 409
ACT VIII 41 6
CHAPTER XV: THE ARRIVAL OF THE BODHISATTVAS OF THE TEN DIRECTIONS 418
ACT IX 418
OBJECTIONS TO THE PLURALITY OF BUDDHA 419
ANSWER TO THE OBJECTIONS 424
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR OF THE PLURALITY OF BUDDH AS 427
LARGE NUMBER OF SAVIORS, BUT SMALL NUMBER OF THE ELECT 430
ACTX 454
PREFACE
MAHAPRAJNAPARAMITASASTRA
NAGARJUNA
ETIENNE LAMOTTE
Here is a first attempt at an annotated translation of chapters I to XV of the Mahaprajhaparamita
(abbreviated as Mpps) by Nagarjuna. The work has not come down to us in the original Sanskrit, but only
through the intermediary of a Chinese translation, the Ta tche ton louen. This version which contains 90
chapters (p'in) in 100 rolls (kiuan), is by the Kuchanese KumarajTva who worked in Tch'ang ngan in the
Siao yao Park, in 404 or 405 A.D. 1 I (Lamotte) have used the edition of Taisho Issaikyo, vol. XXV, no.
1509; the numbers in the margins of this translation refer to the pages and columns of this edition 2 .
The Mpps is a commentary on the Pancavimsatisdhasrikd Prajndpdramitd (abbreviated as Pancavimsati)
'The Perfection of Wisdom in Five Thousand Lines', as it appears in KumarajTva's Chinese translation Mo
ho pan jo po lo mi king (Taisho, T VIII, no. 223). Of this Pancavimsati we have four Chinese translations,
one Tibetan translation, one Sanskrit revision and one Tibetan translation of this Sanskrit revision.
1. The four Chinese translations are:
i) The Kouang tsan king {Taisho, Vol. VIII, no. 222) in 27 chapters (p'in = parivarta) and 10 rolls (kiuan)
by Dharmaraksa, dating from 286 A.D.
ii) The Fan kouang pan jo king (Taisho, vol. VIII, no. 221) in 90 chapters and 20 rolls, by Moksala amd
Samgharaksa, dating from 291.
iii) The Mo ho pan jo po lo mi king (Taisho, vol. VIII, no. 223) in 90 chapters and 27 rolls, by KumarajTva,
dating from 403-404. This version is reproduced in its entirety and abundantly commented in the Ta tche
tou louen.
iv) The second part of the Ta pan jo po lo mi king (Taisho, vol. VII, no. 220), in rolls 401 to 478, contains
long extracts from the Pancavimsati. The translation is by Hiuan tsang and is dated at 660-663.
T. Matsumoto has prepared a useful concordance for these four Chinese translations 3 .
2. The Tibetan translation is entitled Ses rab kyi pha ml tuphyinpa stohphrag hi su lhapa; it consists of
76 chapters (lehu = parivarta) and 78 sections (bam po = khanda). The name of the translators is not
mentioned. The work is part of the Bkah-hgyur, section ser phyin, II; it takes up four volumes of the
1 P.C. Bagchi, Le canon bouddhique en Chine, vol I, Paris 1927, p. 197. - Different from most Buddhist works, the Mpps
was not translated into Tibetan but only into Chinese. For the Mpps and Touen-houang and Kharakhoto, see
Bibliographie bouddhique, vol I, 1930, no. 105; vol. IV- V, 1934, no. 307.
The Tripital Chin revi ollatcd, add rra < Ii b I 1 I I i u in ! 1 >' ii mabc, 55 vols.,
Tokyo, 1924-1929.
i I ii urn to, D I' , amita-Lit t (1 onm i irii nl ili - Ik liulii n Hi ii I ) lull i in 1932, p. 38-41.
Peking Bkah-hgyur (vol. ni-di: Tibetan collection of the Bibliotheque Nationale, no. 40-43) and three
volumes of the Narthang Bkah-hgyur (vol. ka-ga: Tibetan collection of the Bibliotheque Nationale, no.
385-387).
3. The Sanskrit recension which repeats its title at the end of each chapter is entitled:
Aryapahcavimsatistihasrika hhagavatf prajiidparaiiiihi ahhisamayalainkaramisarena samsodhita. It
contains eight chapters (parivarta) 4 . As its title indicates and as Dutt has established, it is a reworked
recension of the original Sanskrit Pancavimsati, modified with the intention of serving as commentary to
the Abhisamayalamkara 5 .
4. The Tibetan translation of this Sanskrit recension is entitled Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa stoh phrag
hi su lha pa, but its real title, which corresponds word for word with that of the Sanskrit recension, is given
by the colophon: Hpags pa beam idem hdas ma ses rab kyi rol tu phyin pa stoh phrag hi su lha pa mhon
par rtogs pahi rgyan gyi rjes su hbrahs nas dag par gtugs pa. This work consists of 8 chapters (lehu =
parivarta) and 74 sections (bam po = khanda); if the Tibetan indexes are to be believed, it has as author
Simhabhadra or Haribadra, as translator Santibhadra, and as proofreader JayasTla 6 . It is included in the
Bsrtan-hgyur, Mdo hgrel section, vols. Ill, IV and V (Tibetan material in the National Library, nos. 198-
200).
The prologue (niclclna) of the Pancavimsati, to which the first 15 chapters of the Mpps serve as
commentary, is reproduced in almost identical words at the beginning of other Prajnaparamitas, such as the
Satasahasrika and the Dasasahasrika. Therefore it is important to give some bibliographical information
here on the literature of the Prajnas. For the Tibetan and Chinese versions, it is enough to refer to the
excellent studies of Lalou and Matsumoto 7 ; here we will limit ourselves to giving the list of the Prajnas in
Sanskrit that have already been edited as a note 8 .
4 The first chapter has been edited by N. Dutt, Tin Pahcavimsatisdl 'cd-P ami witi t a I notes and
rod io (i li nil i )rii ni il ri no. 28), L< ndon, 1934.
-* This work has been edited by Th. Stcherbatsky and E. Obcrmill i / /
Sinistra, the work oj bodhisattva Maitreya. Fasc. I: Introduction, Sanskrit Texl and Tibetan Translation (Biblioteca
Buddhica, no. XXIII), Leningrad, 1929.
rdicr, < / ; \ iris. 1915. Ill <
' M. Lalou, La version tihetaine tics I'rajhdparaniita. Journal asialiquc, Jul) -Sept. 1929. p. 87- 102. - T. Matsumoto, Die
I'rajiiapn Lite) lull ill 1 ' p
;: Satasahasrika P.P., ed. Pratapachandra Ghosha (Biblioteca Indica), Calcutta, 1902-1914.
viiiisati i'i i' I "nil (( lla Oriental ri I, I n I >n i * J
la I'. P. in Stcn ICom i ( ' > t I \ i i
and Index (Avhandlingcr uUnlt av del Norskc Vidcnkaps-Akademi i Oslo), Oslo, 1941.
AstaOahasrika P.P., ed. Rajendralala Mitra (Biblioteca Indica), Calcutta, 1888. - This edition, quite faulty, will favorably
be replaced by the text of the Aslasahasrika incorporated by U. Wogihara in his edition of tin Ihli a <i ival niikai dol i.
Tokyo, 1932-1935.
■ / an tvi P P , in T. Matsumoto, op. cit., as appendix.
The Mpps is attributed to Nagarjuna: Kumarajiva's version has as its title 'Ta tche tou louen, composed by
the bodhisattva Nagarjuna and translated by the Tripitikadharmacarya KumarajTva of the country of K'ieou
tseu (Kucha) of the later Ts'in'; the Li tai san pao ki, a catalogue of the Tripitaka compiled in 597 by Fei
Tch'ang fang, also notes that the original work is the work of the bodhisattva Nagarjuna 9 . Nevertheless, it
is odd that the Mpps does not appear in the lists of works attributed to Nagarjuna by the Long choup'ou sa
tchouan ( Taisho 2047) and the Tibetan historians Bu ston and Taranatha.
The bodhisattva Nagarjuna (Kin sgrub in Tibetan, 'converted by a dragon' or 'converting the dragons'; in
Chinese Long chou 'dragon tree', Long mong 'unflinching dragon' or Long cheng 'victorious dragon') is one
of the most enigmatic, yet also one of the richest, figures in Buddhism. He lived in probably the second
century of our era and played a role of primary importance in the formation of the Buddhism of the Greater
Vehicle. Originally from the south, the country of Andhra, his influence extended as far as the north-west
of India. Dialectician and metaphysician, he is the founder of the Madhymaka or 'Middle- Way' school,
which, while accepting the buddhology and the mysticism of the Greater Vehicle, submits the old texts of
Buddhism to negative criticism and ends up with absolute emptiness (sunyata). Nagarjuna's theories have
been thoroughly discussed in Asia and Europe. The question is whether the Madhyamaka accepts an
absolutely existent Reality. L. de La Vallee Poussin has long believed that this school is nihilistic and
denies the absolute 10 ; on the other hand, Th. Stcherbatsaky was of the opinion that Nagarjuna denied
appearance only in order to affirm Being 11 . After an argument which at times turned into a quarrel, de La
Vallee Poussin drew nearer to the position held by Stcherbatsky whereas the latter came very close to
adopting the theses defended by de La Vallee Poussin 12 . But this is not the only problem with regard to
Nagarjuna.
Many Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese sources give us much information about the life and works of this
author, but the facts they contain are soaked in the miraculous and seem to refer to several Nagarjunas of
different date and origin, so that the re-appearance of the same legends is inextricably tied up among them.
They have been analyzed, perhaps with inaccuracies of detail, by Walleser 13 and summarized by
Saptasatika P.P., ed. G. Tucci, in Memorie della R. Accademia Nazionalc dei Lincei, vol. XVII, 1923, fasc. I; ed. J.
Masuda, in Journal of the I aisho University, vol. VII, 1030, p. 186-241.
Vajracchedikd P.P., ed. M. Miillcr (Anecdota Oxonicnsia, Aryan Series, vol. I part I), Oxford, 1881.
Adliyardhashatika P.P.. ccl. L. Lcumann, Zur iiordarischcii Sprachc mid Literatur. Slrassburg, 1912, p. 84 seq; ed. S.
Toganoo and H. Izum Kyoto, 1917.
/' , i cd. . VI. Miillcr (Anccdol nicnsi ryan Scries \ol. I part III), Oxford, 1884.
9 P.C.Bagchi, Le canon bouddhique en Chine, T. I, p. 197.
1" L. de La Vallee Poussin, Madl vtiina ! n \clopedia of Religion and Ethics, VIII, p. 235-237; Nirvana, Paris 1925;
Le dogme el la philosophic du Bouddhisine. Paris, 1930, p. 113-118. Mad) vama Vlel in i ( hinois et Bouddhiques,
vol. II, 1932-1933, p. 1-59.
11 Th. Stcherbatsky, Conception of Buddhist Nirvana, Leningrad, 1927, p. 35-39.
!2 Th. Stcherbatsky, Die drei Richtungen in der Phih > >j >es Baddhisimi Ro ni Orjcnlali (\czny, vol. X, 1934, p.
1-37; Madhyanta-Vibhahga, Leningrad, 1936, p. VI- VIII.
1-* M. Walleser, The Life of Nagarjuna from Tibetan and Chinese Sources, Hirlii Anniversry Volume, London, 1922, p.
421-455.
Winternitz in the second edition of his history of Indian literature 14 . Since then, other information has been
collected.
Attention has been drawn to a series of predictions relative to Nagarjuna found in the Lankdvatdra 15 , the
' ' "i i i H) \> i i i ] i 1 I i 1 ) I «; ' i i <
Apart from Nagarjuna the Madhyamika philosopher, there was one other (or several) Nagarjunas,
magician, alchemist and writer of tantra. Documents published By G. Tucci 19 and S. Levi 20 may be added
to the information we already possess. Moreover, it may have been Nagarjuna who discovered and
revealed to humans the Mahavairocanastitra, one of the main texts of Buddhist Vajrayana and of the
Shingonsect 21 .
All the sources, in emulation of one another, mention the friendly relations and alchemical collaboration
between Nagarjuna and a king of the Satavahana or Satakarni dynasty (perhaps also Andhra) which, in the
second or first century before our era until the end of the second century afterward, disputed the empire of
Dekhan with the Sunga-Kanvas and with the Sakas, before dying out around Dhanyakataka and AmaravatT
in Andhra proper 22 . S. Levi has collated these different sources and related them to another cycle of
legends relating to the rivalry between a Satavahana and the Kusana king Kaniska 23 .
Archeological discoveries, old and new, partially confirm the literary documents. According to the Tibetan
historians, Nagarjuna may have spent the last of his life in the land of Andhra, of the Teluga language,
between the Godavari and the lower Krisna. The region abounds in sites made famous by archeology:
14 M. Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, vol II, Calcutta, 1933, p. 341-348.
15 Lankavatara, ed. B. Nanjio, Kyoto, 1923, p. 286; Taisho 671, k. 9, p. 569a; Taisho 672, k. 6, p. 627c.
16 Mahameghasutra cited in the Madhyamakavatara, Tibetan version ed. by L. de La Vallee Poussin, Saint Petersburg.
1912, p. 76; transl. in Le Museon, 1910, p. 274. - Chinese translation by Dharmaraksha, Taisho 387, k. 5, p. 1099-1100,
studied by P. Demie\ ill ' I nil le IT I 1'E iilme-Orient, vol. XXIV, 1924, p.
227-228. - Tibetan translation of Bkah-hgyur ed. by G. Tucci i / ' loin I and 1 > Iwi i Ih
Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. XXVI, 1930, p. 145-147. - Bu ston, Chos hbyuh, tr. E. Obermiller, II, Heidelburg, 1932, p.
129.
17 Mahamayasutra in Taisho 383, k. 2, p. 1013c. - Cf. J. Przyluski, Legende de Vempereur Ashoka, Paris, 1923, p. 163-
164.
'" Vlahjiisnmnlakalpa. cd. Ganapati Sastn. Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, p. 616-617.
!" G. Tucci, Animadversiones indicae: VI. A Sanski i tstions connected with
Nagarjuna, Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Socicrty of Bengal, vol. XXVI, 1930, p. 138-155.
2 ^ S. Levi, Un nouveau document sur le bo i i tndt Bull, of the School of Or. Studies, vol.
VI, part 2, p. 427-429.
21 Kin kang ting king ta yu k'ie pi mi sin ti fa men yi kue, Taisho 1798, k. 1, p. 808a-b. - Cf. R. Tajima, Etude sur le
Mahavairocanastitra, Paris, 1936, p. 30-32.
22 For the history of this dynasty, see L. de La Vallee Poussin, L'Inde aux temps des Mauryas, Paris, 1930, p. 206 222;
and Dynasties et Histoire de I'Inde, Paris, 1935, p. 184-185; R. Grousset, L'Asie orientate des origines au XVe siecle,
Paris, 1941, p. 53-54, 72-77.
•* S. Levi, A</ ' k ivali n lournal Asiatique, Jan. -Mar. 1936, p. 61-121.
Dhanyakataka, ancient capital on the lower Krisna, corresponding to the actual Dharanikot, in the district
of Guntur, one mile west of the site of Amaravatl; upstream and on the same south bank of the Krisna, Goli
and Nagarjunikonda; in the north-west, Jaggayyapeta. Nagarjuna, it is said, constructed a building for the
shrine of Dpal hbras spuns (Sldhanyakataka) 24 , surrounded it with a wall and built 108 cells within the
wall 25 . According to the same historians 26 , he may have established his residence at Sriparvata, a
monastery situated on a rocky cliff overhanging the Krisna, and probably identified with the mountain in
the Po lo mo lo k'i li (Bhramaragiri or Mountain of the Bees) which king Satavahana had hollowed out and
fitted out for the bodhisattva Nagarjuna 27 . The inscriptions discovered in the area corroborate all this
information. The outer balustrade of the Amaravati stupa bears the inscription of two kings of the Andhra
dynasty, Pulumayl and Yajnasri 28 and according to some authors, it is to the latter that Nagarjuna dedicated
his Letter of Suhrllekha. The Bhadanta Nagarjunacarya himself is mentioned in an inscription found near
the stupa of Jaggayyapeta 29 . At Naharallabodu, beside the mahacetiya of Nagarjunikonda, an inscription
mentions the buildings erected by the lay Buddhist Bodhisiri and mentions 'the monastery on Siriparvata to
the west of Vijayapurf which must be the monastery of Sriparvata where the Tibetan historians say that
Nagarjuna died 30 . In a more general way, the inscribed pillars at Nagarjunikonda 31 bear precious
indications on the Buddhism of the south at the time of Nagarjuna: to a certain point, they inform us about
the canonical scriptures (Dlgha, Majjhima and Pancamatuka), the sects (Caityika, Aparasaila, Purvasaila,
BahusrutTya, Mahasasaka and possibly also Mahasamghika), the doctrines and especially the area of
expansion of the Buddhism of the Andhakas. But the systematic study of these epigraphical facts has
hardly yet begun up 32 . They should be compared with the Andhaka theses, the refutation of which is the
particular aim of the Katavatthu 33 . The discovery should also be mentioned of a Buddhist monastery at
Harwan in Kashmir, which the Rajatarahginl (I, 173) calls Sadarhadvana 'The Forest of the Six Arhats',
which may have served as residence for Nagarjuna 34 . - Finally, according to Bu ston and Taranatha,
Nagarjuna stayed for a long time at Nalanda, the important center of tantric Buddhism, which he
24 Bu ston, transl. E. Obermiller, II, p. 125.
25 Taranatha, transl. by A. Schiefher, St. Petersburg, 1869, p. 71.
26 Bu ston, II, p. 127; Taranatha, p. 73, 81, 303; Dpag bsam ljon bzah, ed. Candra Das, Calcutta, 1908, p. 86.
2 ' Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 10, p. 929c. - For the Bhramaiauiri Shnparvaia i deal i lie i ion, T. Watters, on Yuan
Chwang's Travels, vol. II, London, 1905, p. 207-308.
° L. de La Vallee Poussin, L'Inde awe temps des Mauryas, p. 233.
2 " J. Burgess, Notes on the . iinai avati Stapa, Madras, 1882, p. 57..
3 " L. de La Vallee Poussin, Dynasties et histoire de I'lnde, p. 232.
■ ' J. I'll i I ' ' i it'' t i i I, Lpigraphia lndica i. p. I
32 See N. Dutt, Notes on the Nagarjunikonda Inscriptions, Indian Historical Quarterly, vol. VII, 1931, p. 633-653; L. de
La Vallee Pouossin, Notes de Bit > Id vli i in < Clunois et Bouddhiques, vol. I, 1931-1932, p. 382-
383; Bibliographie Bouddhique, IV- V, Paris, 1934, p. 135.
33 See especially R. Saikriyayana, Recherches houdd/iiqiies. !. Lcs origincs dn Mahayana. Journal Asiatiquc, Oct.-Dec.
1934, p. 195-208.
34 R. C, Kak. Ancient Monuments of Kashmir, London, 1933, p. 105-111; Annual Bibliography of Indian Archeology,
VIII (1933), p. 22; XI (1936), p. 21.
ornamented with monuments and illustrated with his miracles. We may hope that systematic exploration of
this site, pursued systematically 35 , will one day shed some light on the Nagarjuna of Nalanda.
The literary and archeological information on Nagarjuna is so plentiful and extends over so many centuries
and different regions of India that it may be wrong to consider them as simple elements of biography. With
regard to the person Nagarjuna, they have but mediocre historical value; but they are documents of
primordial interest if, giving up the search in them for a biography of Nagarjuna, we consider them as
evidence, naive but sincere, of the religious movement of reform tendencies to which Nagarjuna attached
his name. Leaving the south, this reform expanded to Kashmir and the north-west of India, not without
undergoing, in the course of time, substantial transformation: dialectical and metaphysical in origin, it soon
became tinged with magic, underwent the influence of the alchemical school and finally ended up in the
tannic Buddhism of the Vajrayana. To sketch even briefly this long history would take us too far away;
here I will return to the Mpps and its first fifteen chapters of which a brief analysis must be given.
The first part of the Nidana or Prologue of the Pancavimsati begins, as all sutras do, with the traditional
profession of faith: Evam mayd srutam ekasmin samaye, and provides proof of its authenticity by making
known the place where the sutra was preached, by whom and to whom: 'Thus have I heard at one time. The
Bhagavat was dwelling at Rajagrha on Grdrakutaparvata, together with a great assembly of 500 bhiksus
endowed, except for Ananda, with eleven excellent qualities, with 500 bhiksunls, 500 upasakas and 500
upasikas, with an immense crowd of bodhisattva- mahasattvas endowed with 28 qualities and led by the 22
principal ones among them.'
The Mpps devotes thirteen chapters of commentary on this first part:
Chapter I: The twenty reasons why the Buddha preached the Prajhdpdramitd.
Chapters II-III: Explanation of the phrase: 'Thus have I heard at one time'.
Chapter II: Word-for-word explanation.
Chapter III: General explanation.
Chapter IV: Explanation of the word Bhagavat and other epithets applied to the Buddha. - Dissertation on
the omniscience of the Buddha.
Chapter V: The place of the sutra: The abodes (vihdra) of the Buddha. - Grdhrakutaparvata. - The frequent
sojourns of the Buddha at Rajagrha and SravastT. - The Buddha's preferences for Rajagrha and
Grdhrakutaparvata.
Chapters VI-XIII: The assembly surrounding the Buddha
■" See H.D. Sankalia, The University of Nalanda, Madras, 1934; Annual Bibliography of Indian Archeology, I (1936), p.
12-13; III (1928), p. 19-20; VIII (1933), p. 8; IX (1934), p. 4.
Chapter VI: The assembly of bhiksus: What should be understood by bhiksu and samgha. - The eleven
qualities of the bhiksus who were present. - Why the arhats surround the Buddha. - Why Ananda is not an
arhat. - Origin of his name.
Chapter VII: The assembly of bhiksunls, upasakas and upasikas.
Chapter VIII-XIII: The assembly of bodhisattva-mahasattvas.
1. Chapter VIII: The bodhisattva: his place in the assembly. - Definition of the word. -
Bodhisattva with regression and without regression. - The bodhisattva in the Abhidharma system. - The
bodhisattva in the Mahayana system.
2. Chapter IX: The epithet mahasattva applied to the bodhisattva.
3. Chapter X: Qualities of the bodhisattva: no 1 to 18.
4. Chapter XI: Qualities of the bodhisattva: no. 19 to 21.
5. Chapter XII: Qualities of the bodhisattva: no. 22 to 24.
6. Chapter XIII: Qualities of the bodhisattva: no. 25 to 29. - The twenty-two main bodhisattvas.
Chapters XIV and XV comprise the second part of the Prologue. They appear as a play in ten acts of which
here is a summary after a short analysis of the Mpps in k. 9, p. 122b24-122c6.
Act I. The Buddha enters into the Samadhirajasamadhi. - He emerges from it and smiles a first
time with his whole body (sarvakdya). - Light rays come forth from the soles of his feet and the other
parts of his body. - He lights up the trichiliocosm and the universes of the ten directions; the beings
touched by them are established in bodhi.
Act II. The Buddha smiles a second time by all the pores of his skin {sarvaromakupa); light rays
come forth illuminating the trichiliocosm and the universes of the ten directions; beings touched by them
are established in bodhi.
Act III. The Buddha, by means of his usual effulgence (prakrtiprabha), lights up the trichiliocosm
and the universes of the ten directions; beings touched by this light are fixed in bodhi.
Act IV. The Buddha stretches out his tongue and covers the trichiliocosm with it; he smiles a third
time and light rays are emanated from his tongue; on each of them there appear lotuses on which are seated
imaginary Buddhas who preach the six paramitas; beings who hear them are established in bodhi.
Act V. The Buddha who has entered into Simhaviknditasamadhi shakes the trichiliocosm in six
ways. - Description of the sixfold shaking of the earth. - The softening of the earth makes beings joyful. -
Beings plunged into the bad destinies of the trichiliocosm are reborn among humans or the gods of
kamadhatu. - They turn to the Buddha to pay homage to him. - The same scene is reproduced in the
universes of the ten directions. - In the trichiliocosm, the weak, the sick and the crippled are healed. - All
beings are filled with brotherly benevolence; they practice the virtues, are celibate, experience great
happiness and rejoice in marvelous wisdom.
Ace VI. The Buddha manifests his supernatural qualities in the trichiliocosm.
Act VII. The Buddha shows his ordinary {prakrtydtmabhdva) body to the inhabitants of the
trichiliocosm who come to him with flowers. - They throw these to the Buddha. - The flowers form a
belvedere (kutdgdra) in the air. - Garlands and bouquets hang from it. - The trichiliocosm and the universes
of the ten directions take on a golden color. - Each being has the impression that the Buddha is speaking to
him in particular.
Act VIII. The Buddha smiles a fourth time and, in the light of this smile, beings of the
trichiliocosm and the universes of the ten directions become aware of one another.
Act IX. At the ends of the universes of the eastern direction, the buddha Ratnakara reigns over the
RatnavatT universe. - The bodhisattva Samantarasmi asks him the reason for these marvels that he sees. -
Ratnakara explains to him that they are due to the power of the Buddha Sakyamuni who reigns over the
Saha universe. - Samantarasmi offers to go and pay homage to him. - Ratnakara approves, entrusts him
with compliments and precious lotuses for Sakyamuni and makes some recommendations to him. -
Samantarasmi, accompanied by other bodhisattvas, starts his journey to the Saha universe. - Before
departing, he bows to the Buddhas of the East.
Act X. Samantarasmi, laden with gifts, arrives before Sakyamuni and prostrates at his feet. - He
greets him in the name of the Buddha Ratnakara and gives him the lotuses which the latter had intended for
him. - Sakyamuni throws the lotuses to the Buddhas of the East. - They immediately fdl all the universes of
the East. - on each of them, an imaginary buddha preaches the six paramitas; the beings who receive the
teachings are established in bodhi. - Samantarasmi and his entourage pay homage to Sakyamuni. - The
scenes related to Acts IX and X are reproduced to the ends of the other nine directions. - The Saha universe
is transformed in a marvelous way. - It becomes the equal of the most eminent buddha-field
(buddhaksetra). - Sakyamuni gazes upon the immense assembly gathered before him.
Let the reader not be deceived. This prologue which, at first reading, may appear as a web of childishness,
is really a work of precision where every word counts, where every phrase, meticulously chosen, is
arranged in a definite order according to a precise purpose. It is the culmination of long centuries of
scholasticism. To interpret it correctly a commentary is indispensable, but the Mpps furnishes every
desirable explanation for this purpose. It is an enormous compilation abounding in quotations of all kinds
made, for the most part, without any precise reference. I [Lamotte] have attempted to identify them
throughout the entire Buddhist literature, both canonical and post-canonical. The second fire at the Louvain
Library, by restricting me once again to the meager resources of my personal library, made this hunt for
references especially difficult. Therefore I did not have access to the Dictionnaire des noms propres du
bouddhisme indien by C. Akanuma which would have been useful; on the other hand, I managed to glean
from Malalasekara's Dictionary of Pali Proper Names the volume of notes appended by E. Chavannes to
his translation of Cinq cents contes et apologues tires du Tripitaka chinois, and the rich references gathered
by L. de La Vallee Poussin in his translation of Vasubandu's Abhidharmakosa. By furthering the research
and crosschecking, I have succeeded in gathering quite a rich harvest of references which, I hope, will be
useful to those who one day will continue this work. If some of my notes have been extended seemingly
abnormally, it is because I have tried to present a complete record of sources from which the Mpps was
able to draw. It will, I hope, untangle some general conclusions which I intend to formulate in a later work.
Despite the difficulties of the times, the Fondation Universitaire has continued its kindness by defraying
the expense of printing the present volume as generously as in the past and I express all my gratitude. How
could I not also name J. Duculot, my faithful editor, who knew how to overcome all the obstacles so as to
give this work a suitable presentation.
E. Lamotte
ABBREVIATIONS
Abhisamayalamkara
Acta Or.
Aloka
AM
An. Bibl.
Ahguttara
- tr. Woodward-Hare
- tr. Nyanatiloka
AO
Apadana
AR. Arch. Surv.
Astasahasrika
Atanatikasutra
Atthasalinl
-tr. Tin, Expositor
Aung, Compendium
Avadanakalpalata
Avadanasataka
- tr. Feer
Bagchi
Barth, Oeuvres
BCLS
Beal, Catena
Beal, Romantic Legend
Abhisayalamkaraprajnaparamitopadesasastra, ed. Th. Stcherbatsky-E.
Obermiller (Bibl. Buddh. No. XXIII), Leningrad, 1929.
Acta Orientalia, Leyden, since 1922.
Abhisamayalamkaraloka, ed. U. Wogihara, Tokyo, 1932-1935.
Asia Major, Leipzig, since 1924.
Annual Bibliography of Indian Archeology. Kern Institute, Leyden,
since 1928.
Ahguttaranikaya, ed. R. Morris-E. Hardy, 5 vol. (PTS), London, 1885-
1900.
F. L. Woodward-E. M. Hare, Gradual Sayings, 5 vol. (PTS), London,
1932-1936.
Nyanatiloka, Die Reden des Buddha aus dem A.N. ubersetzt, 5 vol.,
Munchen, s.d.
Achiv Orientalni, Journal of the Czechoslovak Oriental Institute,
Prague, since 1929.
ed. M.E. Lilley, 2 vol. (PTS), London, 1925-1927.
Annual Report of the Archeological Survey of India, New Series, since
1874.
Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, ed. R. Mitra (Bibl. Ind.), Calcutta, 1888
scq .
Bruchstiicke des A., ed. H. Hoffmann (Klein. Sanskrit-Texte, No. V),
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ed. E, Muller (PTS), London, 1897.
P.M. Tin, The Expositor, 2 vol. (PTS), London, 1921.
S.Z. Aung, Compendium of Philosophy, transl. of the
Abhidhammatthasamgaha (PTS), London, 1929.
ed. S.C. Das, 2 vol. (Bibl. Ind.), Calcutta, 1888-1918.
ed. J.S. Speyer, 2 vol. (Bibl. Buddh. No. Ill), St. Petersburg, 1902-
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L. Feer, Avadanasataka, Cent legendes bouddhiques (AMG No.
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P.C. Bagchi, Le Canon bouddhique en Chine, 2 vol. (Sino-Indica No. I,
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Oeuvres de Auguste Barth, 5 vol., Paris, 1914-1827.
Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres et des Sciences morales et politiques,
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S. Beal, ,4 Catena of Buddhist Scriptures , London, 1871.
S. Beal, Romantic Legend of Sdkya Buddha, London, 1875.
Beckh, Budclhi sinus
BEFEO
BhadracarT
Bhadramayakara
Bhavasamkranti
Bhavya
BhiksunTpratimoksa
Bodh. bhumi
Bodhicaryavatar
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BSOS
Buddhacarita
Buddhavamsa
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Bukkyo daijiten
Burgess, Amaravatl
Bumouf, Lotus
Bu ston
CAGI
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CHAPTER I: EXPLANATION OF ARGUMENTS
[k. 1, p. 57c] The prajnaparamita is a great path which the Buddha has travelled,
The prajnaparamita is a great sea which the Buddha has drained,
The true meaning of the prajnaparamitas is not closed to the Buddha:
I prostrate to the prajnaparamita and the unequalled Buddha.-'"
Ceaseless destruction of the two views of existence and non-existence, '
The true nature of the things preached by the Buddha,
Eternal, stable, immutable, purifying the passions:
I prostrate to the venerable Dharma of the Buddha,
The noble Assembly - a great sea - cultivates the field of merits™
Saiksas and asaiksas serve as its ornament,
It has destroyed the thirst that produces rebirths.
Suppressed the feeling of 'mine' and destroyed its root.^O
Having renounced the things of the world,
It is the seat of all the qualities.
It is foremost among all the assemblies:
■'" The first four stanzas are a homage to the Three Jewels (triratna): the Buddha, the Dharma and the Community
(samgha). In the first, the Prajnaparamita is closely associated with the praise of the Buddha, for it is the Mother of the
Buddhas (cf. Mpps, T 1509, k. 4, p. 93a; k. 34, p. 314a; k. 70, p. 550a. - Mahaprajnaparamitasutra, T 220, k. 441; p. 224c.
- Paficavimsati, T 223, k. 14, p. 323b)
■'' The view of existence and non-existence (bhavavibhavadrsti) also called view of belief in the extremes
i rsti) consists of bcli vin u el rnih i Ion lincti nl da) It has been formally condemned many
times by the Buddha and by Nagarjuna. Cf. Samyutta, II, p. 17: Sabbai i
dutiyo anto. Etc te uhlio ante anupagainina inajjlieiia Tathagato dhammam descti - \ladh. karika, XV . 10, p. 272 273:
astm a i ata i i
tasinad astitvt uastitve i i\ \ , ,
3° I.e., the Buddha who is the punyaksetra par excellence.
-'" The U sua i i ' that 'leads from rebirth to rebirth, accompanied pi nrc and en In li pin! i i U > ,. i
here and there: the thirst for pleasure, the thirst for existence, the thirst for impcrmanencc' (Vinaya, I, p. 10).
11 I In I" Hi i in i in ' Hid 'mini ' (a atnnya ilia)\\ hii li m il i up tin ill i\ idi li
I prostrate to this Assembly that is pure and full of merits.
Having venerated the Three Jewels whole-heartedly,
I also supplicate the saviors of the world, Maitreya, etc.,
Sariputra, foremost among sages,
Subhuti, who practices the aranasamadhi.
Now, according to my skill, I wish to explain
The true meaning of Mahaprajnaparamita.
I would wish that all people of great merit and noble wisdom
Give their full attention to my words.
Question. - For what reasons (hetupratyaya) did the Buddha preach the Mo ho pan jo po lo mi king
(MahaprajnaparamitasQtra)?42 The Buddhas do not preach the Dharma (dharmam desayati) without a
reason (niddna) or for a futile motive (kdrya). It is like the Siu mi (Sumeru), king of mountains
(parvatardja), which does not tremble without a reason or for a futile cause. What then are these solemn
reasons that determined the Buddha to preach the Prajnaparamitasutra?
[p. 58a] Answer. - In the Tripitaka, the Buddha developed many kinds of comparisons (drstdnta), but
when he preached to the sravakas, he did not speak about the bodhisattva path (bodhisattvamdrga). It is
only in the Tchong a han pen mo king (Purvaparantakasutra of the Madhyamagama)^3 that the Buddha
The aranasamadhi is the power to prevent the arising of passion in others. The bibliography for this subject is in
Samgraha, p. 53. - Subhuti is ihc foremost of She aranavihariiis (Anguttara, I, p. 24); see M. Wallcscr. Dh ' n :■ 'osigkc,
des Subhuti, Heidelberg, 1917.
4 ^ By Mahaprajnaparamitasutra, the author probably means the collection of the Prajna literature and particularly the
Pahcavimsati of which the .Ylpps is she commentary.
i] / utraofthcl Mmn ml 'n lJ i kno n in thn ln.icsc lccensions:
l)The Chouo pen king of Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 66), k. 13, p. 508c-511c; 2) the Kou lai che che king, T 44, p. 829b-
830c; 3) the Pop'o li king of Hien yu king, T 202 (no. 57), k. 12, p. 432b-436c. - The Sanskrit title, Purvaparantakasutra,
has two citations as evidence from the Karmavibhanga, p. 39 and 67; the Tibetan title, Snon dan phyi mthahi mdo, is
known by a citation from the .Ylaitrcyavyakarana, v. 2 ■ For this sutra. see also S. Levi, Maitreya /<• coiisolatcur, ML, 11,
p. 362-363.
The literature on Maitreya is considerable, but of rather late date:
Pali sources: DIgha, III. p. 75 seq.; Suttanipata [jitasaiun act la, \ 1932-2039, and Tissaineyyamanavapuccha, v.
1040-1042; Milinda, p. 159; Atthasalini, p. 361, 415, 431; Visuddhimagga, II, p. 434; Mahavamsa, XXXII, v. 81 seq;
Anagatavamsa, JPTS, 1886.
Sanskrit and Chinese sources; Mahavastu, I, p. 51; III, p. 246; P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 135, p. 135, p. 698b; Chouen tcheng
li louen, T1562, k. 38, p. 559a; Kosa III, p. 193; VII, p. 129; IX, p. 269; Kosavyakhya, p. 21, 293; Siddhi, p. 176, 418,
622, 737, 772; Maitreyavyakarana, ed. S. Levi, ML, II, p. 381-402; T 348, 349, 1143, 1525.
predicted (yydkarana) to bodhisattva Mi lo (Maitreya): "Later you will become the Buddha with the name
of Maitreya." 44 But even there, he said nothing about the various bodhisattva practices {bodhisattvacaryd).
Here the Buddha wishes to explain the bodhisattva practices to Maitreya, etc., and this is why he preaches
the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra.
2. Moreover, there are bodhisattvas who cultivate (bhdvayanti) the concentration of recollection of the
Buddhas (buddh m rt ddhi) ' ' In order that they progress in this samadhi, the Buddha preached the
Mahaprajnaparamitasutra to them. Thus, in the first chapter of the Prajnaparamita, it is said: "Manifesting
the basis of his miraculous power (rddhipada), the Buddha emits golden {suvanarupa) rays {rasmi) that
light up in the ten directions {dasadis) universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges
{ganganadivalukopama lokuclluitu). Showing his great body (malidkdya) of pure light (visuddhavabhasa)
and of various colors {nanavudharupa), he fills all of space (akasd). In the middle of the assembly
{parsad), the Buddha is upright (riju), beautiful {abhirupa), peerless {asama), like Sumeru, king of the
mountains, in the center of the great ocean. " 4 6 The bodhisattvas, seeing this miracle (prdtihdrya) of the
Buddha, progress ever further in the recollection of the Buddha. It is for this reason that the Buddha
preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra.
3. Furthermore, at the moment of his birth (janmari), the Bodhisattva 4 ' emits great rays of light {rasmi)
that fill the ten directions {dasadis), takes seven steps {saptapdda) and contemplates the four directions
{caturdisah pariksate); proclaiming the lion's roar {simhanada), he utters this stanza:
I have been born, my births are ended:
This is my last existence.
1 mi 1 i i ii in In eastern Iranian, th Vlail yasamiti: in Tokharian, fragments of th M mi isamitinataka ( Toe
Sprachreste, p.254, n.); in Sogdian, the TSP of Benveniste, p. 29, 115.
Modern works: N. Peri, BEFEO, XI, 1911, p. 439-457; P. Demieville, BEFEO, 1920, XX, p. 158; XXIV, 1924, p. 240-
241; Przyluski, Le N.-O. de I'Inde, p. 58; Le Parinirvana, p. 161, 178, 205, 332; La croyance au Messie dans ITnde at
dans Than, RHR, vol. C, no. 1, Jul.- Aug. 1920, p. 1-12; Un dieu iranien dans I'inde, RO, VII, 1931, p. 1-9; S. Levi, Les
seize Arhat, Extract from JA 1028, p. 14, 53; Le sutra du sage et du fou, JA Oct.-Dec. 1025, p. 320-326; Maitreya le
consolateur, ML, II, p. 355-492; R. Al ' i / ' / in, Berlin, 1928.
44 Purvaparanatakasutra, T 26, k. 13, p. 511a: Later, a long time from now, when the duration of human life will be
80,000 years, you will be Buddha with the name Maitreya Tathagata, arhal .... Digha, HI, p. 75: asTtivassasahassd) ukesu
i \ Vlcttc) i I ii l Inn T 1 (no. 6), k. 6, p. 41c.
45 For buddh inn mriti un idhi, see below, k. 7, p. 108c-109b.
46 The miracle of the Buddha is described in k. 7, p. 1 1 la.
4 ' This paragraph contains a biography of the Buddha. Short and hackneyed though il is. il contains some revealing
details that allow it to be placed in the evolution of the Buddha legend. It is later than the sparse biographical fragments in
ill i i i l ii 1 1 il In h ill i 1 1 i i 1 ilh i is bul Ih I lii lcnl. on ihc other hand, it presents several points of
contact with the following biographies of the Buddha: sections of the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, Mahavastu,
Lalitavistara, Buddhacarila, Chinese Lives (T 184-192). - Modern works: Bcckc, liuddhisimis, 1: ICcrn llistoire, I, p. 19-
291 ICcrn, Manual, p. 12-46: Oldenbcrg. Bond p li I i. 21-49 n ,n Ihoma >
the Buddha; Waldenschmidt, Legende.
I have attained liberation,
Henceforth I will save beings.
4° Mus, Barabudur, p. 475-576, has a study on the 'seven steps of the Buddha and the doctrine of the pure lands' in
which, with his usual skill, he attempts to untangle the symbolism of (his legendary act. I [Lamottc] add some information
drawn from the Chinese sources. In sequence, tin ika i igama tin Vina i md finally the Lives of the Buddha arc
examined in turn.
1 ) Ylajjima, 111, p. 123 Sampatijato luanda hodlusath ni punabbhavo ti. - Tr.: As soon as he was born, the
Bodhisattva, placing his feet flat upon the earth, turned to the north, took seven strides (double steps), and with a white
parasol behind him, pronounced: "1 run the foremost in the world, I am the best in the world, 1 am the eldest in the world;
this is my last birth; there will be no further need for a new existence for me."
2) In DTgha, II, p. 15, the same actions and the same words are attributed to all future Buddhas. By contrast, the
corresponding p i i i -I In bin < \ una h < i nificant differences.
3) Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 32), k. 8, p. 470b: I ha\ c heard it said that the Bhagavat, at (he moment of his birth, took seven
steps without any fear, terror or dread.
4) I ch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 1), k. 1, p. 4b-c: The Bodhisattva V ipasyin, at birth, came out of his mother's right side with
untroubled mind. Having come out of her right side, he came down to the ground and took seven steps, without the
support of anyone. He looked around in the four directions, raised his hand and said: "Alone, I am the eldest (jyestha) in
heaven and on earth. I will enable beings to pass beyond birth ijdti), old age (jam), sicklies:; (vyadhi) and death
- 'To pass beyond' here means 'to escape from', 'to save from'.
In the Vinayas, we include not only the .Ylulasarvastivasdin Vinaya but also the Ylahavastu which appears to be the
II ill I il M II ll ' II II
5) Ken pen chouo...p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 2, p. 108a: According to the usual rule, after his birth, the Bodhisattva stood
on the earth and without anyone's support, took seven steps. Gazing in the lour directions, he spoke these words: "I am
the first Uigra) of all beings: this is the southern region: 1 am nth of (I II in i fbein Ihi is the i i i i
the east: I am one of the elect (niytitti): I will undergo no rebirth (pimtirhlitivti): tins is (he region of the north: 1 have now
left the great ocean of samsara." - Cf. Rockhill, Life, p. 16.
6) .Ylahavastu, 11, p. 20: Bodlusattvo smrto .... saptapada n , i at cauhatill
Tr.: The Bodhisattva, aware and thoughtful, without hurling his mother, appeared from her right side. Wear) of abiding
within his mother's womb, he took seven steps. As soon as he was born, he took seven steps on the earth, looked in the
directions and uttered a great laugh.
7) Two biographies of the Buddha, the Sicou hing pen k'i king, T 184, k. 1, p. 463, translated in 207 by Ta li, and the T'ai
tseu jouei ying pen k'i king, T 185, k. 1, p. 473c, translated between 222-229 b\ Tchc k'icn, tell the birth of the Buddha in
almost the same words: He is born from the right side and comes down to the earth. He takes seven steps and, raising his
hand, says: "I am the eldest in heaven and on earth. The threefold world (traidhdtuka) is completely suffering. I will
By contrast, the various recensions of the Lalitavistara show notable differences. The oldest, thai of Dharmaraksa (T 186)
dates from 308, the most recent, that of Divakara (Tl 87) dates from 683 and is closest to the Sanskrit text.
8) P'ou yao king, T 186, k. 2, p. 494a: Then the Bodhisattva was born from the right side and at once came to life on a
precious lotu-- I i i , i ) He came down to earth and took seven steps. Making the sounds of Brahma (brahmasvara)
heard, he spoke in an extraordinary tone: "I will save heaven and earth. I am the eldest (jyestha) of gods and men. I will
bring the sufferings of samsara to an end. Without superior (amittani) in the threefold world, i will bring the everlasting
peace of the Unconditioned (asamskrta = nirvana) to all beings."
9) fang kouang la tchouang yen king, T 187, k. 3, p. 553 compared with (he Sanskrit text of the Lalitavistara, p. 84 (tr.
Foucault, p. 78): At the end often months, the Bodhisattva came out of his mother's right side, aware and thoughtful,
without any stain from his mother's womb. He looked at the universe and saw no-one like himself.
Sanskrit text: Atlia tasmiii \a\naye ... bhavisyami sarvasattvanam.
T 187: Then the Bodhisattva, endowed with aw arcness, judgment and right mind, w ithout support, took seven steps to the
north by himself. Beneath his feet, lotuses sprang up. Then the Bodhisattva, fearless and without terror, spoke these
words: "I have obtained all the good dharmas. I will preach them to beings." Then facing the south, he took seven steps
and said: "I am worthy of receiving the offerings of gods and men." Then facing the west, he took seven steps and said: "I
am the eldest in the world, I am the best. This is my last birth. I will put an end to birth and old age, to sickness and
death." Then facing the north, he took seven steps and said: "Among all beings, I will be without superior." Then facing
the lower regions, he took seven steps and said: " I will triumph over the hordes of Mara and, in order to destroy the
sufferings of the hells, fire, etc.. 1 will send (he great cloud of the Dharma, I will make the great rain of the Dharma to fall,
and thus beings will enjoy complete happiness." Then facing the higher regions, he took seven steps and said: "I will be
visible to all beings."
10) Yi tch'ou p'ou sa pen k'i king, T 188, p. 618a: The prince was born on the eighth day of the fourth month at midnight.
He came out of his mother's right side ant! came down to earth. He took seven steps, his feet, four inches above the
ground, did not tread upon the earth. Raising ins right hand, he said: "I am the eldest in heaven and on earth; no-one can
surpass me."
11) Kouo k'iu hicn tsai yin kouo king, T 189, k. 1, p. 627a: The royal prince was born from (he right side, came down
onto a lotus made of the seven jewels (s<// , i , ' /) and took seven steps. Raising his right hand, he uttered the
lion's roar {siinhaiuida): "Among gods and men, I am (he eldest, (he best {srestha). landless transmigration is henceforth
ended [for me]. My [last] existence will be of use to all, gods and men."
12) Fo pen hing tsi king T 190, k. 8, p. 687b: After his birth and without the support of anyone, the Bodhisattva took
seven steps in each of the four directions. At each step, under his feet there arose a great lotus. When he had taken these
seven steps, he looked in the four directions: his eyes did not blink, his mouth uttered words. First looking in the east, lie
expressed himself in a way compl ( I unlil (hat u i child n i h ct langua I cd ni ular stanzas: "In the world, I
am the conqueror par excellence. From today on, my births are ended." - Bcal, Romantic Legend, p. 44.
13) Buddhacarita, I, v 14 I / / i thakarfm uvaca II
Tr. Johnston, p. 4: He who was like the constellation of the Seven Stars walked seven steps with such firmness thai his
feet were lifted up unwavering and straight, and the strides were long and set down firmly. And looking to the four
quarters with (he hearing of a lion, he uttered a speech proclaiming the (ruth: "I am born for enlightenment for (he good of
the world; this is my last birth in the world of phenomena". - Cf. Fo so hing tsan, T 192, k. 1. p. lb.
14) The legend of Asoka relate di birth of th Bodhi ill i |uit< bricfh f. Di ivadana, p 9 > treka sa munih
... gtirhlitivastis cu pascimah II Tr.: As soon as he was born, he took seven steps on the earth, looked in the four directions
and uttered (his speech: "I his is my last birth and my last sojourn in (he womb." The identical passage in A yu wang
tchouan, T 2042, k. l,p. 103a; A yu wang king, T 2043, k. 2. p. 136c- 137a. Cf. Przyluski, Asoka, p. 251.
Later in appearance, the portion of the legend of Asoka incorporated in the Chinese Samyuktagama, I sa a han, T 99 (no.
604), k. 23, p. 166b-c: The Tathagata was born here. At his birth, he took seven steps. Looking in the four directions, he
raised his hand and pointed to the sky: "This is my last existence. I will obtain the unexcelled path. Among gods and men,
I am without superior and the eldest."
After this oath, he grew up. He decided to leave his parents and left home (pravrajita) in order to cultivate
the unsurpassed path (anuttaramdrga). In the middle of the night, he woke up and considered the ladies of
honor and the courtesans (vesyd) of his harem (antahpura): their bodies appeared like rotting corpses. "
He ordered Tch'fi ni (Chandaka) to saddle (kalpayati) his white horse. At midnight he passed through the
ramparts, traveled twelve miles (yojand) and came to the hermitage (dsrama) where the rsi Po k'ie p'o
(Bhargava)^! lived. With a knife, he cut his hair (asipattena cudam chinnatiy^- and exchanged his
15) The Nidanakalha, p. 53, follows (he canonical version: Evans catasso disci ... iiiccluireiito silianddam nadi.
16) References to the more recent sources in Kern, Manual, p. 13-14.
Examination of these sources makes it clear (hat the Buddha's first words arc intimately linked to the walk of seven steps
and the examination of the cardinal directions. The group constitutes a legendary theme the symbolism of which, I
[I mi i I mi ifraid i l< d to i but th u ive (rai formation o In li may be seen at a glance.
The Bodhisattva took seven steps in one single direction, probably the north, (no. 1-4, 6-8), or in four directions (no. 5),
or in six (no. 9), or in ten (no. 15). - He took these steps with his feet set flat on the ground (no. 1-8, 13-15), or resting on
a lotus (no. 9, 11, 12), or raised above the ground to a height of four inches (no. 10). According to whether lie directed
himself in one oi several directions, the Bodhisattva made a. single declaration (no. 1-4, 7-8, 10-15), or four (no. 5), or six
(no. 9). In only one text, he was content with laughing (no. 6). - The meaning of these words varies considerably:
s he proclaims himself to be the foremost in the world, the conqueror of transmigration (no. 1, 2, 5, 10, 12-15),
:s he presents himself as the savior of the world (no. 7), sometimes he calls himself both master and savior at (he
same time (no. 8, 9, 11). These \ iii ' >n u ci li 1 I to b ittril u J to Hi it flu n < ■>, 'It ho >l rationalist
t Hi \ i ii livadtn) on the one hand upi u iii >n ilisl I *l ill im il i Mahayana) on the other hand. But the
representative moments have likewise had a repercussion on the settling of the legend of the Buddha. Cf. Foucher, Art
Greco-bouddhique, I, p. 305-308.
49 Sleep of the women: Ken pen chouc.p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 4, p. 1 15b (Rockhill, Life, p. 24); Mahavastu, II, p. 159;
Lalitavistara, p. 205-208 (tr. Foucaux, p. 180-183); Buddhacarita, V, v. 43-66 (tr. Johnston, p. 69-74); Lieou tou tsi king,
T 152 (no. 78), k. 7, p. 41b-42a (tr. Chavannes, Contes, I, T 184-194, tr. Beal, Romantic Legends, p. 130.
-"'' ICanthaka, his famous steed.
51 The Bodhisattva's halt at twelve yojanas from Kapilavastu in the hermitage of the rsi Bargava (or Vasista) is
mentioned in Ken pen chouc.p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 4, p. 117b; Buddhacharita, VI, v.l. - According to the
Nidanakalha, p. 64, the Bodhisattva traveled thirty yojanas directly as far as the river Anoma: in the Lalitavistara, p. 225,
he traversed the land of the Sakyas, the Kodyas and the Mallas and arrived at daybreak at the city of Anuvaineya of the
Maineyas.
r '- Cutting of the hair: e.g., in Nidanakalha, p. 64-65, tr. Kern, Ilistoire, p. 55-56: He thought: "This rich head-dress is
not suitable for a monk; nor would it be suitable for the Bodhisattva to have his hair cut by another; that is why I will cut
my hair myself with my sword." Upon which he took his sword in his right hand., his hair in his left hand and, in this way,
cut his hair so short thai it was a mere two inches long and covered his head, curling to the right. During his whole life,
his hair kepi this length; his mustache had a corresponding length, from thai day on. he never needed to cut his hair or his
beard. The Bodhisattva took the hair with the jewel at the top-knot and threw it into the air saying: "If I am destined to
become a Buddha, may my hair remain suspended in space; if not, may it fall down to the ground (sue' aliani Buddlio
i I he hair rose up into the air I ih h i hi i n I i in i I
suspended there, lndra, the king of heaven, seeing that, caught it in a golden box and., within his paradise, established the
hi m -i tin fop-knot ,h cl (culanianit \ I. This is \ h it i
beautiful garments (vastra) for a rough cloak (sainghdti). 5 ^.}ie practiced asceticism (duskaracarya) for six
years (sadvarsa) on the banks of the Ni lien << , (Nairafij ana) river; he ate only one sesame (tila) seed or
one rice (tandula) grain each day. 54 Nevertheless, he said to himself: "This way of life (yihdrd) is not the
good way (marga)." Then the Bodhisattva gave up the practice of asceticism (duskaracaryavihara), went
to the foot of the tree of enlightenment (bodhidruma) and sat down on the diamond seat (yajrdsand). King
His hair, perfumed with scented ointment.
The most sublime of beings cut and threw up into the air
Where Indra of the thousand eyes took it respectfully
And placed it in a golden jeweled box.
For once, the corresponding story in Lalitavistara, p. 225 (tr. Foucaux, p. 197) is more sober in its details: Then the
Bodhisattva thought: " Why should I keep my top-kin ■ I imin id n monl inl > Ll tin h topknot with
his sword, he threw it to the wind. It was gathered up by Trayastrimsa gods and honored; and still today, among the
Trayastrimsa gods, the festival of the Topknot is held. A caitya was also built there; it is still known today by the name of
Cudapratigrahana. - Similar stories in Wou ten liu, T 1421, k. 15, p. 102b; Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190, k. 18, p. 737c.
- > - 5 Exchange of clothnv idai ' itha | 6 i>i ICcrn, Ilistoirc, 1, p. 56): Then the Bodhisattva thought: "These garments
of fine Benares muslin are not suitable for a monk". However he did not have any other clothes to wear. one of his
former companions from the time of Buddhakasyapa understood this. His name u as Ghatikara and he felt a friendship for
his former comrade (Jyotipala. cf Aiahavastu, I, p. 319] that had not weakened during the thousands of years thai had
elapsed between (he appearance of the two Buddhas. Seeing thai his friend had gonwe forth from home and left his
belongings to become a monk, he resolved to go to find and bring him whatever a monk had need of:
Three robes and a begging bowl,
A knife, a needle, a belt.
Also a water filter, those are the eight
" jI>i I i him hi ii i ni 1 I .ill
But the Mpps comes rather closer to the story told in the Lalitavistara, p. 225-226 (tr. Foucaux, p. 197). It came into the
Bodhisattva's mind: "Why keep these garments from Benares after becoming a wandering monk? If I had ochre robes
(kasaya) suitable to live in the forest, that would be good." Then it came to the mind of the Suddhavasakayika gods: "The
Bodhisattva needs some ochre robes." Then a son of the gods, making his divine shape disappear, stood before the
Bodhisattva in the form of a hunter clothed in an ochre robe. Then the Bodhisattva said to him: "Friend, if you give me
some ochre robes, I myself will give you some garments from Benares..." Then the son of a god gave the Bodhisattva (he
ochre robes and took the Benares garments and. full of reverence, put these garments on the top of his head with his two
hands in order to honor them and returned to the world of the gods... There also a caitya was built and still today this
i I I i i I i i I. i !l me main details in ih i »i n \\ ihavastu II, p. 195; Buddhacarita, VI, v. 60-
63.
'4 Fast of the Bodhisattva at Uruvilva on the Nairanjana. According to the canonical tradition, Majjhima, 1, p. 245 (no
corresponding surras in the Chun i in I the food of the Buddha consisted of a little soup (yusa) made of beans
1/ i i h i hiclq i r«) or i i I. - on th nh hand, in tl i i i I > the
Buddha successively reduced his food to one kola, to one grain of rice {tandula), then io one sesame (tila) seed daily; cf.
Lalitavistara, P. 254, 1. 3; p. 255, 1. 8; p. 255, 1. 15; Mahavastu, II, p. 125, 1. 10, p. 126, 1. 16; p. 128, 1. 4. The Mpps and,
even more curiously, the Nidanakatha adhere apparently to this tradition, p. 67: Bodhisatto pi kho kotippattam ....
, in!, uiUm M.ir In, i| ih Buddha i good study of the sources in J. Dulon I) lu ,, i A /■'< / atl
in der buddhistischen Tradition, Strassburg, 1905. See especially p. 11,21, 23, 36, for the Buddha's food.
Mara with his troupe of eighteen nayutas of warriors, came to overcome him, but the Bodhisattva defeated
Mara's army (mdrasendy^ by the power of his wisdom (prajhd) and his qualities (guna). Then he attained
supreme perfect enlightenment (anuttarasamyaksambodhi). The lords of the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, i.e., the Brahmakayikadevas and their king Che k'i (Mahabrahmasikhin),
the gods of Rupadhatu, Che y'i jouan yin (Sakradevendra), the gods of Kamadhatu with the
Caturmaharajikas, went to the Buddha and invited (adhyesayanti) the Bhagavat to turn the wheel of
Dharma (dharmacakra). Remembering his former vow (purvapranidhana) of great compassion
(mahdkarund), the Bodhisattva accepted their invitation [58b] (adhyesand) and proclaimed the Dharma,
i.e., the profound dharmas (gambhtradharma) and the Prajnaparamita. This is why the Buddha preaches
the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra."
4. Furthermore, there are people who think that the Buddha is not omniscient (sarvajhd)? ' Why? They
say: "The dharmas are infinite (apramdna) and innumerable (asamkhyeya); how could a single person
know them all?"" The Buddha abides in the true (bi i >//' ana) i ijnaparamita pure as space
(dkdsasuddha); in infinite (apramdna) and innumerable (asamkhyeya) texts, he himself has given the
assurance: "I am omniscient (sarvajhd); I wish to destroy the doubts of all beings
(sarvasattvasamsayacchedaka)". This is why he preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra.
- > - ) Thomas, Life of the Buddha, p. 68, comments that in the canonical story (.Ylajjima, 1, p. 237) there is no mention either
of the bodhi tree or of Mara's temptations. The Mpps thus depends here on more recent sources such as the Padhanasutta
(Suttanipata, v. 425-449); Nidanakatha, p. 70-75; Buddhacarita, chap. XII, v. 112-118; XIII, XIV; Lalitavistara, chap.
XX-XXII; Mahavastu (II, p. 267-270, 276-283, 304-349. See E. Windisch, Mara und Buddha, Leipzig, 1895, p. 229, 332-
335.
56 According to the interpretation of the Mpps, when Brahma united the Buddha to preach the Dharma (below, k. 1, p.
63a-b), it was a matter of the entire Buddhist doctrine u ithoul distinction as to Vehicle. In response to this invitation, the
Buddha preached not only the Four Noble Truths, the central point of the Ffinayana, but also the 'very profound dharmas
and the I'rajtiaparamita'. the basis of lite .Vlahayana dogma. For a long time it has been acknow ledged that both Vehicles,
rcfi rring to one and the same teacher, the Buddha S ikyamuni li II his life and his propagation of the Dharma in almost
the same terms ami affirm thai Ihcit main texts were given by him
57 Below, K. 2, p. 73b, 74b.
58 Same objection, k. 3, p. 74b27.
5y The question of the Buddha's omniscience (sarvajnata) is quite complex. At the time of the Buddha, some individuals
claimed to know everything, to understand everything, to have nothing further to know or to understand. They said:
"Whether 1 walk or stand still, whether I sleep or am awake, I have always knowledge and awareness at my disposition"
[iii i j upaltliitan ti). Such were, < (In ! lim oi li nth i Ih iputl i, Purana I pa i
(.Vlajjhima, I, p. 92; II, p. 31; Ahguttara, IV, p. 428). The Buddha is more modest: "Those who affirm", he says to
ii ( I. oil i ill u Hi in it I Got an i i o mil cient (sahh /);/), clait > i i i / ' I, do not pi ll ill n.ilh il i i
me... They would be correct to say that the monk Gotama possesses the three knowledges" (tevijjo samano Gotamo).
these three knowledges arc the knowledge of past existences, the knowledge of the death and birth of beings and the
knowledge of the destruction of the impurities (.Vlajjhima, I, p. 482).
The Sarvastivadin-Vaibhasika doctrine is based on th inonical lim I !,i Vlahaniddi i [ 1 lie ibiiih Buddha
it by virtue of his knowing everything but by virtue of the fact that he is able to know whatever he
5. Furthermore, there are beings who could be saved. Nevertheless, since the great qualities (guna) and the
great wisdom (prajna) of the Buddha are immense (apramdna), hard to understand (durjneya) and hard to
fathom (durvigdhya), these beings are deceived by evil masters. Lapsing into false doctrines
(mithyddharma), they do not enter into the right path. Towards them, the Buddha produces a mind of great
loving-kindness (mahdmaitricitta); he grasps them with the hand of his great compassion
(mahdkarundhasta) and introduces them into the buddha-destiny (buddhagati). This is why he manifests
his marvelous qualities (guna) and exhibits his great miraculous power (rddhibala), as is said in the first
chapter of the Prajnaparamita: "The Buddha enters into the concentration called 'King of Concentrations'
(samddhirdjasamddhi). Coming out of that concentration and considering the universes of the ten
directions with his divine eye, he smiles from all the pores of his skin. Wheels with a thousand spokes
mark the soles of his feet; he sends forth six hundred nayutas of multicolored rays. From all parts of his
body, from the toes of his feet to his cranial protuberance, he sends out six hundred nayutas of
multicolored rays that, in the ten directions, light up innumerable and incalculable buddha-universes as
numerous as the sands of the Ganges. And they were all illuminated.""" Coming out of this concentration,
wishes. DcsciiU.r (In p rf< etion of wisdom belonging to the Buddha, Kosa, VII, p. 832, identifies a fourfold knowledge:
1) urn i iii I i i i i . ui ui) 1) universal knowledge (sarvatra jnana), i.e., knowledge of all natures, 3)
omniform know led c( irva /), l e , knowledge of every way ol I on • i) pontain ms knowledge Uiyatnajna i
knowledge by the simple wish to know.
on the other hand, the Greater Vehicle attributes to the Buddha pun; and simple omniscience. The Vlpps asserts below, k.
2, p. 74c, that the Buddha knows all the sciences and that, if he does not teach them, it is because nobody asks him. The
explanatory literature on the Prajhas, such as the Abhisamayalamkara, p. 1-2, and its commentary, the Aloka, p. 5,
ittributi i threefold know led to the Buddha 1 i irvtiktirtij ifti. omni ience p uliar to (he Buddha, ultima! i md direct
1 ,i i led i in in. m Ir moment l I ispi I if i istcnci ibsoluti md empirical i i t omni ience relatin
to the paths of salvation, Hmayana and Mahayana; it belongs to the Buddha and the bodhisattvas on the bhumis; 3)
sarvaji'iata, omniscience relating to things of the empirical world; ii represents the knowledge of all the elements from the
non-ego point of view; it belongs to the Buddhas and bodhisattvas and is accessible to the Hmayana saints, (cf. E.
Obermiller, Doctrine ofPP, p. 62; Analysis, 3-6).
The Bodh. bhumi, p. 404-405, defines the sai vat nana the omniform knowledge, as follows: tatra yat
' i vaiiartho, iliitesu in ucyate The san ' i t illows the Buddha to cut through the doubts of all
beings. - This comes from a stanza i.i iU 1 .h . inasul I ml u VI, 58, p. 188.
trihhili kayair....namo 'stu te II
"By means of the trikaya Ihou hast attained the great omniform enlightenment. Thou cuttesl through the doubts of all
beings! Homage to thee!" This stanza is repeated and commented upon in the Samgraha, p. 303; the commentary
proposes four interpretations of the epithet sarvakara applied to the Buddha's knowledge; it concludes by saying: "As for
myself, I see the suppiession of all obstacli i I ranapraht i) in this omniform knowledge: it cuts through all the
obstacles to knowledge (yieyaxavaiia) and suppresses all the impn nation (i l. It i i prcci kno ledg bi irin nn
all the doubts of others." - The question of omniscience is linked with thai of knowledge which, in turn, has some
complications; see J. Rahder in HBbBgirin, Chi, p. 283-297.
"° Free quotation of the Pancavimsati, p. 5-7, that can easily be restored into Sanskrit: Atha khalu
II be commented on in k. 7, p. 111-114.
the Buddha wishes to teach the true nature (bhutalaksana) of all dharmas and cut through the bonds of
doubt (samsayabandhand) of all beings. This is why he preached the Mahaprajnaparamita.
6. Furthermore, there are evil people, given up to feelings of envy (Trsya), who slander the Buddha by
saying: "The wisdom (prajna) of the Buddha does not surpass that of men; it is just his magic (maya) that
deceives the world."" 1 In order to destroy this scornful arrogance and false pride (mithyamana), the
Buddha manifests the immense power (apramdnabala) of his miraculous power (rddhi) and wisdom
(prajna). About the Prajnaparamita he says: "My miraculous power has immense qualities
(apramanaguna) and surpasses the threefold world (traidhdtukavisista), it is meant for the welfare of all
(sarvaparitrana). To form a bad opinion of it is to commit an immense sin (apatti); to give pure faith to it
(visuddasraddha) is to be assured of the happiness of gods and men (devamanusyasukha) and to reach the
fruit of nirvana (nirvdnaphala) definitively."^ 2
&1 Heretics have often treated the Buddha as a magician. Upalisutta, Majjhima. I, p. 375 = Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 133),
k. 32, p 62 l )i^" Samaiii hi ha , a i/o iivatteti: "The monk Gotama is a magician; he knows the hidden magic thai
seduces others' disciples." Sanskrit fragments of this sutra may be found in Hoernle, Remains, p. 27-35; S. Levi, Notes
indiennes, JA, Jan.-Mar. 1925, p. 26-35; Vimsatika, p. 10, 1. 15. - Patalisatta, Samyutta IV, p. 340 = Tchong a han, T 26
(nO 0), k. 4, p. 445b utam me ta ijdna 1 ha heai ! that the monk Gotama knows magic." - An allusion
to this same Patali occurs in Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 119), k. 5, p. 37b, and in P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 27, p. 139a: "The tirthika
Patali says: Gautama, do you know magic? If you do not, you are not omniscient; if you do, you are a magician." - P'i p'o
cha, T 1545, k. 8, p. 38b: "The tlrthikas slander the Buddha saying: The sramana Gautama is a great magician who
lecci ih nlil >sa, 111, p. 30: ICosavakhya, p. 20 lyufn > i flic hcrcti riticizi
the Buddha. These are Maskan, etc Ahead i of tl ii i m Ik I) mil I iautama i niigician. - And
elsewhere it has been said of the Buddha: After a hundred periods there appeared in the world a magician of this kind who
will destroy (exploit) the world by his magic."
If most of Buddhist texts consider the word 'magician' applied by heretics to the Buddha as harmful, some late sources,
like the Ratnakfita, describe the Buddha as the greatest of magicians and victor of all magic tournaments. Cf.
31 nil mm yakara, p. 6 urthcrmo laudgal n the magi ol tin jug lei ! "i nli i b< in i i omplctc, is not the
right magic, whereas the magic of the Tathagata is the right magic, since he has I'uiK realized that all of reality is but
magic. If all the beings in the world who are attached to nominal reality each possessed as powerful a magic as the juggler
Bhadra, even all of their magic would not reach a hundredth, or a thousandth, or a billionth, or even an incalculably and
incomparably small part of the magic of a Tathagata."
" 2 Buddhists love to mention this disproportion between the error and the punishment on the one hand and the merit and
the reward on the other hand, Cf. Bodhicaryavatara, I, v. 34-35:
in santrapatau jiiiasya...suhham iv ayatnatah II
Tr. Lav., p. 7: "Such is the son of the Buddha, master of a veritable feast. The Buddha has declared: Whosoever sins
against him in his heart remains in hell for as many centuries as the evil though! has lasted in seconds. But w hen the heart
is calm and takes delight in the Bodhisattva, this is a merit so great that it destroys old sins. And is violence not necessary
to occur to harm the bodhisattvas? Is it not natural to love them?"
imilarh di< Pra inta inisca ipratiharyasutra ,ImI m 1'aiijika p 39 and Siksasamucchaya, p. 85: Ydvanti
\l 1 ,,' ;' HI I I I I
7. Furthermore, in order that people accept his doctrine, the Buddha says to them: "I am the great teacher
(mahasastri), I possess the ten strengths (bald) and the four fearlessesses (vaisaradya); I am established in
the abodes of the saints (dryavihdrd); my mind enjoys the masteries (vasita). Uttering the lion's roar, I turn
the wheel of the Dharma (dharmacakra); in all the universes I am the supreme being."
8. Moreover, it is for the joy (pramudita) of beings that the Buddha preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra.
He says to them: "You should experience great joy. [58c] Why? Because all beings enter into the net of
false views (mithyddrstijdld): they are all deceived by bad heretical teachers (pdsandamithydsdstri). I have
escaped from the deceptive net of all bad teachers. The great teacher who possesses the ten strengths {bald)
is difficult to find. Today you have found him. I will reveal to you the basket of the profound dharmas
(gambhiradhannapitaka), i.e., the thirty-seven wings of enlightenment (bodhipaksya), etc.; you will gather
them as you wish."
9. Furthermore, all beings are afflicted (klista) by the sicknesses (vyadhi) of the fetters (samyojana). In the
course of beginningless transmigration (anddikdlikasamsdra), never has anyone been able to cure these
sicknesses that are misunderstood by the bad heretical teachers. Today I have appeared in the world as the
great king of physicians (mahdvaidhyardja);" I have compounded the medicine of the Dharma
(dharmabhaisajya)^ and you should take it." This is why the Buddha preaches the
Mahapraj naparamitasutra .
10. Furthermore, there are people who think: "The Buddha is just like ordinary people; like them, he is
subject to transmigration (samsara); he really experiences the pains of hunger (bubhuksd), thirst (pipasa),
cold (sita) and heat (usna), old age (jam) and sickness (vyadhi)."®* In order to suppress such concepts, the
Buddha preaches the Mahaprajna,> u imita u ra and says: "My body (kaya) is inconceivable (acintya) °°.
"-* on the Buddha, king of physici it (l master of medicines I ) sec below, k. 22, p. 224a; k. 85,
p. 657b. For details, see P. Demieville in HBbBgirin, Byfi p. 228, 230-231.- The 'Sutra of the good physician' or the 'Sutra
on the comparison of the physician' are important, the Sanskrit texts of which may be found in Kosa, VI, p. 121, n. 4;
Kosavyakhya, p. 514; and the Chinese version in Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 389), k. 15, p. 105a-b. - Other sources mentioned
by Demieville: T 276, p. 384c; T 159, k. 8, p. 328c, 330b; T 375, k. 5, p. 631c; T 26, k. 4, p. 442-443; k. 60, p. 804-805,
etc. Further references to Pali and Sanskrit texts: Ahguttara, III, p. 23S t > chanti - In a
lisi of epithets applied to the Buddha. (Ahguttara. IV, p. 340). there is that of hlusakha, 'physician', the Vlilinda compares
the Buddha to a vejja, p. 74, and to a bhisakha, p. 112, 169, 172. 173. - The Lalitavistara invokes him as vaiyardj or
vaidyaraja, p. 46, 97, 283, 351, 358. - The Bodhicaryavatara calls him the omniscient physician, skilled in curing all
uffering (sa i / laliarin II, v. 37), the best of physicians (varavaidya, VII, v. 24). - Similarly,
Siksyasamucchaya, p. 148.5, 243.4, 295.1.
M Religious preaching plays an important part in Buddhist therapy; cf. HBbBgirin, Byfi, p. 257.
*" Like man\ Vlahayana sutras, the Vlpps attributes two bodies to the Buddha, one human, the other superhuman. I he
latter is in question here. Cf. Siddhi, p. 776, 788; HBbBgirin, p. 178-182.
"" Marvellous though his powers may be, the Buddha is considered as an ordinary human, not only by his enemies the
heretics but also by his first disciples, the I hcras, who compiled canonical scriptures and elaborated the Sarvastivadin
scholasticism: see Siddhi, p. 764-772; HBbBgirin, p. 174-177. It is exclusively on these sources, which represent only a
part of Buddhism, that H. Oldenburg has based his well-known work, Le Buddha, sa vie, sa doctrine <
Brahma king of the gods, etc., the gods and the ancients, for periods (kalpa) as numerous as the sands of
the Ganges {gangdnadivalukopama) have tried to measure my body and find the range of my voice {vac);
they were unable to test it and still less, my wisdom (prajna) and my samddhi." Some stanzas say:
The true nature of dharmas,
Brahma devaraja,
All the gods and princes of the earth,
Misunderstand it, are unable to understand it.
The profound marvelous Dharma,
No-one can test it.
The Buddha has come to reveal it.
Its light is like the brilliance of the sun.
Moreover, when the Buddha turned the wheel of the Dharma (dharmacakra), bodhisattvas from foreign
regions (desantara) came to examine the Buddha's body"' which surpasses space (akasha) and the
immense buddha-fields (buddhaksetra). Having come from the universe of the Buddha Houa chang
(Padmottara),"° they saw the body of the Buddha and exclaimed:
Space is infinite,
So are the qualities of the Buddha.
To want to measure his body
Would be an endless task.
He surpasses the world of space
And the immense buddha-fields.
To see the body of the Lion of the Sakyas
Is just that and none other.
The body of the Buddha is like a mountain of gold,
He sends out great rays,
[59a] He is adorned with the major and the minor marks
Like a garland of lotuses in springtime.
67
In the Mahavastu, III, p. 343-345, and the Lalita\ istara. p. 438, these are the devas or devaputras who c<
the Buddha.
°° The Buddha residing at the limits of the nadir (I'ahcavimsati, p. 17).
If the Buddha's body is immense (apramdna), so also are his rays (rasmi), his voice (vac), his morality
(sila), his samddhis, his wisdom (prajna) and his other buddha qualities {buddhadharma). Refer to the
three mysteries (guhya) explained in the Mi tsi king (Guhyakasutra)"" on which it will be necessary to
enlarge.
11. Furthermore, at the time of his birth, the Buddha came down to the earth, took seven steps (saptapada)
and spoke some words, then was silent. '" Like all infants, he does not walk and does not talk; he suckles
milk for three years; nurses feed him and he grows slowly. However the body (kdya) of the Buddha is
incalculable (asamkhyeya) and surpasses all the worlds (sarvalokatikrdntd). But he appears to beings as an
ordinary man (prthagjana). Ordinarily, in a new-born baby, the limbs (kdyabhdga), the faculties (indriya)
and the mental consciousness (manovijndna) are undeveloped (siddha, parinispanna) and thus, the four
odil pi 1 ion i it ) mi 1 ' china ), lyi n (sayyu) Iking (gcinuina) anding (sthdna)
- going from speech to silence, and all the other human behaviors (manusyadharma) are incompletely
manifested. With the passing of the days, months and years, the child practices little by little and takes on
"" The three mysteries (guhya) of the Tathagata, the mystery of the body (kdya), of the speech (vac) and of the mind
i ii ,i in 1 1 in i'i i i i iU ii i ' ii iii I (I mbl\ i i ih ! jrapani king T 310, k.
10, p. 53b. - Dharmaraksa has given a different version in the Jou lai pou sseu yi py mi ta tch'cn
(Tathagatacintyaguhyanirdcsa), T 312, k. 6, p. 716c.- The Tibetan version is called De b€in gsegs pahi gsah ba bsam gyis
,' i n i ' i = Inh h in i ill mil Ii si Dkon brtsegs no, 3 (OKC no. 760.3, p. 231; Csoma-Feer, p. 214). -
Below, k. 10, p. 127c, the Vlpps refers back to the same icxl under the name .VI i isi kin kang king (Guhyakavakrapani)
' I hi para l phi mtain i horl milium >i ilii I ill > i a li • Buddh ill id\ kel hidmpii i ph 1 In ten trial in I
human existence of Sakyamuni, although real, is not only miraculous but also, in a certain sense, artificial: the Buddha
conforms to the world (lok inuvm in): he takes on worldly dharmas which in reality are foreign to him. There are
several* ricrii oi'Lol ittara i! omcliiw lh' Bodhi ittva kyamuni is a fictitious body (iiinnauakaya), a phantom
(Docctism), sometimes it is a body of birth which, at the time of enlightenment, is paired with a glorious body, a both of
dharmadhatu (See Siddhi, p. 773-776; HBbBgirin, p. 177-185). The Lokottaravada of the Mpps is largely that of the
Mahavastu, summarized by A. Barth, Jour, des Savants, 1890, p. 467-458 (= Oeuvres, V, p. 16): "The Buddhas have
absolutely nothing in common with the world (lokena sainain): everything in (hem is supernatural (lokottara), I, p. 159. II"
the} appear to think, speak, act, suffer like us, it is out of pure compassion, in order to conform externally to our
ikncss ( i i i Ii msclvcs are above all of that and remain strangers to it, I, p. 167-172. To maintain the
opposite is heresy, I, p. 96. It goes w ithout sa\ ing that our text tells all the miracles of the conception, gestation, birth at
great length, but not without adding to it its own note, which is thai thai all lakes place without any natural cause, or
rather, as there is no divine cause, it is itself its own cause. In no way are the Buddhas engendered by their father and
mother; they arc produced by their own energy, they ate * (inirvi lm ii i just a im] li \ iriant of the
brahmanical svayainhhu, 1, p. 145. Their mothers are virgin (see, however, Lav., Dogma et philosophie, p. 57, 186-188;
Thomas, Life of the Buddha, p. 36): in those existences in which (hey are to give birth to a Bodhisattva of the last level,
the mothers of the Bodhisattva live in complete chastity; not even in mind do they have any connection with their
spouses, I, p. 147. They live as virgins for seven days after having given birth, 1. p. 199. Their ladies are also virgins: for.
in their last t\\ o existences, the Bodhisattvas did not give themseh es up to sense pleasures. Thus ii is direct!} from hea\ en
thai RahCila entered the womb of his mother Yasodhara... As for the Bodhisattvas who have reached their last birth, we
know (hat they come into the world leaving their mothers' right side without injuring (hem: thai is because, adds the
Vlahavastu, their form (riipa). i.e.. (heir body, is completely spiritual (manomaya), I, p. 218."
human behaviors. But why was the Buddha born, if before birth he was already able to talk and walk, and
afterwards he could not? This seems strange; but the single purpose of the Buddha is to use his power of
skillful means (updyabala): the Buddha manifests human behaviors (manusyadharma) and adopts the
human positions (irydpatha) so that beings will believe in his profound Dharma. If the Bodhisattva were
able to walk and talk as soon as he was born, people would say: "This man that we see is extraordinary
(adbhuta), he must be a god (deva), a naga or a demon (asurd). The doctrine which he professes is
certainly not within our reach. Transmigrating (samsdrin) and fleshly (mdmsakdya) beings as we are, in the
grasp (aksipta) of the activities of the fetters (samyojana), we do not have the capacity (vasita) for it; who
among us could attain such a profound Dharma?" '1 Victims of their own modesty, these people cannot
become firm adepts of the holy Dharma (urytidhtirnuihliajana). It is for them that the Buddha is born in the
Lan p'i ni yuan (Lumbimvana). '2 - Although he might have gone directly to the tree of enlightenment
(bodhidruma) and become Buddha there, he pretended by skillful means iupayd) to act as a child
(kumara), as an adolescent (bald), as a youg man (darakd) and as a grown man. At every age, he
successively fulfilled the appropriate role: childish play (kumdrakrida), study of the arts (kdla),
householder's duty (sevand), enjoyment of the five objects of desire {panca kamagunay^ - Endowed with
human faculties, he contemplates the painful spectacle of old age (jatfi), sickness (vyadhi) and death
(marand) and experiences revulsion (samvegdy^ for them. - In the middle of the night, he passed outside
the ramparts, left home (pravrajati) and went to the rsis Yu t'o ie (Udraka) and A lo lo (Arada). He
/l The same idea expressed in almost identical words in the Lalitavistara, p. 87-88: garhhavasthitah ca....paripurayitum
hi. - Tr. Foucaux, p. 81-82: It is out of compassion for beings that a Bodhisattva is born in the world of men, because if he
were a god, he would not turn the wheel of Dharma. And because of that, Ananda, how could beings not fall into
ih iiiragement? (Th would ly) In Bhaj vatl th tl irhati trul th p 1 1 i i ind accomplished Buddha; but we,
being only humans, are incapable of fulfilling the conditions.
Indeed, if the canonical scriptures arc to be believed, Sakyamuni's contemporaries did not know how to characterize him
and perplexedly wondered: Is he a man, a got' . andharva oi i al i? CI VhguUara 11, p. 38 (corresponding passage in
Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 101), k. 4, p. 28a-b; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 31, p. 717b-c); Majjhima, I, p. 386; Jataka, I, p. 66.
'*■ The Lumbimvana, the birthplace of the Buddha, is rarely mentioned in the canonical sources. See, however,
uttanipal v. 6 \l ihincv) nap 1:1 iili i itthu p 97, 559. - But all the biographies of the Buddha, Sanskrit and
Chinese, as well as (he Pali cxcgclical literature, agree in having the Buddha be born at Lumbini: .Ylahavastu, 11, p. 18.
145; Lalitavistara, p. 82, 96, 234, 41 1; Buddhacarita, 1, v. 6: Nidanakatha, p. 53, 54; Manoratha, I, p. 16; Cullavamsa, LI,
v. 10; Ken pen chouo...p'o sang che, T 1450, k. 2, p. 107c, etc. - At Lumbini, actually Rumindei, near the Ncpalesc
village of Paderia, two miles north of Bhagavanpura, there is a column erected by Asoka on the spot where the Buddha
was born bearing the following inscription: "Here the Buddha was born, sage of the Sakyas... He has erected a stone
column which makes it known: 'Here the Blessed one was born.' " (Oldcnbcrg, Buddha, p. 110-111).
'•' For the miracles of childhood and youth, Thomas, Life of the Buddha, p. 38-50.
74 The Mpps mentions only three encounters (the old man, the sick man and the dead man), like the Buddhacarita, III, v.
25-62; the Lieou tsi king, T 152 (no. 77), k. 7, p. 41a-b (Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 267-270) and the Tch'ou yao king
(Tokyo Tripitaka, XXIV, 6, p. 43). - But most sources add a fourth, the meeting with a monk: cf. .Vlahapadanasutta,
DIgha, II, p. 21-28; Nidanakatha, p. 59; Mahavastu, II, p. 150-157; Lalitavistara, p. 187-191; Ken pen chouc.p'o seng
che, T1350, k. 3, p. 1 12c- 1 14a; Chinese biographies: T 184, p. 3466-467; T 185, p. 474-475; T 186, p. 502-503; T 187, p.
570-571; T 188, p. 618; T 189, p. 629-631; T 190, p. 719-724.
pretended to be their disciple, but did not follow their teaching. Having always had the superknowledges
(abhijna), he recalled his former existence (purvajanmd) when, at the time of the Buddha Kia cho
(Kasyapa), he followed the path of discipline (sTlacaryamarga)y $ nevertheless, for the moment, he
pretended to practice asceticism (duskaracarya) and searched for the path (mdrga) lor six years. -
Although he reigns over the trisahasramahasahasra-lokadhatu, the Bodhisattva pretended to destroy Mara's
army (marasend) and attain the supreme path (anuttaramdrga).
It is in order to conform to the human condition (lokadharmdnuvartana) that he manifested all these
transformations (parinama). But here in the Prajnaparamita he manifested the great power of his
superknowledges (abhijna) and wisdom (prajha); in that way, people will know that the Buddha's body
(kdya) is incalculable (asamkhyeya) and surpasses all the worlds (sarvalokdtikrdnta).
12. Moreover, there are people who could be saved, but who sometimes fall into [59b] the two extremes
(antadvaya), whether, out of ignorance (avidyd), they seek only bodily pleasures (kdyasukha), or whether,
by the path of activity (samskaramarga), they give themselves up to asceticism (duskaracarya)? ^ From
the absolute point of view (paramartha), these people lose the right path of nirvana. In order to extirpate
these twofold extremes (antadvaya) and introduce people into the middle path (madhyamd pratipad), the
Buddha preaches the Mahaprajnaparamita.
13. Furthermore, he preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra to mark the difference in retribution (vipdka)
between worship (puja) of the body of birth (janmakdya) and the worship of the body of the Dharma
(dhannakdya). Refer to the chapter of the Cho li 'ta (Sarfrastuti). ' '
'^ These two idividual i lied lara ICal m i iiiil I Ji 1 ta I maputta in I ili m m 1 n rada lama md I Ji il i
I m i nil uli lin n (In L In i ' i in l ehnwnn's edition and Foucaux's translation are m error). - Contrary to
what the Mpps says here, the Buddha followed the teachings of Arada before those of Udraka: cf. Majjhima, I, p. 163-
167, 249; Dhammapadatta, I, p. 70-71; Nidanakatha, p. 66; Mahavastu, II, p. 119-120; Divya, p. 392; Lalitavistara, p.
238-239, 243-245; Buddhacarita eh. 12; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 204), k. 56, p. 776b-c; Ken pen chouo...p'o seng che, T
1450, k. 4, p. 119.
'" These are the two extremes of laxism | I nd rism (atm uyoga), i ondemned by
the Buddha who preaches a middle way (madhyam ipad) in the sermon at Benares. Vinaya, I, p. 10: dve 'me
1 iii 1 havastu, III, p. 331: dvdv imau /' vahprtn i inihodl
ite. Lalitavistara, p. 41( / v
See also Digha, III, p. 1 13, Majjhima, III, p. 230; Samyutta, IV, p. 330; V, p. 421; Nettipakarana, p. 110; Visuddhimagga,
p. 5. 32; Mahayanasutralamkai [ Jam rah p I'mlli bhiimi p II 1X7 li« j ilil i In literatim of tin I'rajii
under! lands the middle way not in as moral or disciplinary sense as does the Lesser Vehicle but rath in phili phi J
sense. The two extremes winch it attacks arc nisi only laxism and rigorism but also, and particularly, the extreme views of
being and non-being, of ctcrnalism and nihilism, etc. Cf. .Vladh. vrtti, p. 269; Madh. avatara, p. 22 (tr. Lav., Museon,
VIII, 1907, p. 271); Vaidya, Etude sur Aryadeva, p. 35-37; Lav., Madhyamaka, p. 10; Dutt, Mahayana, p. 46, 54.
77 Sarirastuti is the title of a chapter (p'in) in the Pancavimsati: T 220, k. 430, p. 151c-166a (chap. 35: Cho lip'in); T 221,
K. 7, p. 51b-54a (chap. 38: Cho lip'in); T 223, k. 10, p. 290b-293c (chap. 37: Fa tch'engp'in). - It is commented on in the
Ta tche tou louen, T 1509, k. 59, p. 475b-481b(chap. 35: Kiao Hang cho lip'in).
14. Furthermore, he preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra in order to teach about the bodhisattva's
irreversibility (avaivartika) and about the characteristics (linga) of this uvaivartikaP" He also preaches in
order to thwart the tricks and works of Mara.
15. Furthermore, he preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra so that future centuries will honor (pujati) the
Prajnaparamita and in order to predict (vyakarana) the Three Vehicles (yanatraya). Thus the Buddha said
to A nan (Ananda): After my nirvana, this Prajnaparamita will go to the south (daksliindpaiha): from the
south, it will go to the west (pascimadesa); in five hundred years, it will go to the north (uttarapatha).
'° The Bodhisattva becomes irreversible {avaivartika) or predestined to bodhi (niyata) when he acquires the body born of
the dharmadhatu. Cf. below, k. 4, p. 86b-c; k. 29, p. 273a; k. 74, p. 579c; Siddhi, p. 736-739.
/y Quotation from the ! h irn iti ( irdin I > I inn i p li dislation, T 223, k. 13, p. 317b: "Sariputra, after the
[i mill in o Hi Bu UN In pi ifound \ i |iiin i imil i will go to the lands in the southern i i m 111 re the bhiksus,
I in] uiii upa il i ind upasil i will im ihi profound Prajnaparamita Ihcy will want to keep it, study it, think about
it. teach it, meditate on il arm! practice it. As a result of these roots of good (kusalamula), they will nol fall into the bad
di tinii I Iw i i) but they will enjoy the happiness of gods and men; they will make progress in the six virtues
(ptirtmiitd); they will venerate, respect and celebrate the Buddhas. Gradually, by the vchicl if ih ravaka
pratyekabuddhas and buddhas, they will attain nirvana. ■ Sariputra, from the region of the south, this profound
Prajnaparamita will go to the west; there the bhiksus, etc. - From the region of the west, it will go to the north: there the
bhiksus, etc. - Sariputra, at this time this profound Prajnaparamita will do the work of the Buddha in the region of the
The same itinerary of the I'rajha, south, west, north, occurs in three versions of the Astasahasrika due to the Ichc tch'an
(T 224, k. 4, p. 446b), to KumarajTva (T 227, k. 5, p. 555a) and to Danapala (T228, k. 10, p. 623b).
Some writers call upon this so-called itinerary to assign a southern origin to the I'rajha: these are mainly G. Tucci, II
Buddhismo, Foligno, 1926, p. 1 16; N. Dutt, Mahayana, p. 41, L. de La Vallee Poussin, in Siddhi, p. 752; S. P;
Mahayanism in Ceyli CeylonJoui oi Icieni i cti in ( >. II, 1928, p. 35; T. Matsumoto, Zfe P.P. Literatur, p. 31.
Bui uili', a "Ai ison u liiinl ih ii ih' \iilu en itra ii cncral md tin liipu ii particular ori inati ii tin
south (land of Andhra). it is doubtful that the argument can be based on the cited itinerary. Three comments actually
present themselves.
Before going to the south, the Prajnaparamita left the east, more precisely the region of Magadha, where it had been
preached by the Buddha on Grdhrakutaparvata (Mpps, k. 67, p. 531b): "The Buddha appeared in the region of the west;
there he preached the Prajnaparamita, destroyed Mara and his people, the heretics (tirtlii/at), and saved innumerable
beings. Following that, between two sala trees at Kushinagara, he entered into nirvana. Then the Prajnaparamita wen!
from the region of the east to the south." Secondly, the spread of the Prajna in the lour cardinal directions is but an
allegory meant to symbolize its success. In the same place (k. 67, p. 531b), the Mpps makes this quite clear: "Then the
Prajnaparamita went from the region of the west to the region of the south. It is like the sun, the moon, the live stars and
the twenty-eight constellations (naksatra) which consistently go from west to south. From the region of the south, the
Prajnaparamita will go to the region of the west and, from the west, to the region of the north: thus it makes a circuit
around Mount Sumeru. According to the usual customs of puja, it makes circumambulation towards the right
(pradaksina) around the inhabitants of Jambudvtpa; that is why it goes from east to south and from south to west. Just as
the Buddha, out of dcta' In i it (asa < l did ol stay in one II I abod i th I'rajna does not stay definitively in
one single place." - What is said here about the Prajna is true in general about the Buddhadharma. The journey of the
I'rajha recalls that of the wheel of king Sudarsana which, establishing the Buddhist pcntaloguc wherever it rolled, rolled
There will be many believers there. The sons and daughters of good family will offer flowers (puspa),
incense (dhupa), garlands (mdlya), standards (dhvaja), banners (patdka), music (Jury a), lamps (dfpa),
jewels (maniratna) and other riches (yasu). They will write it, preach it, study it, listen to it, reflect on it,
meditate on it, and worship it in the usual ways. For this reason, these people will enjoy all kinds of
worldly happiness (lokasukha), will obtain the three vehicles (ydnatraya) without delay and enter into
nirvana-without-residue (nirupadhisi am vdnd). This will be seen in following chapters. It is for these
reasons and these motivations that the Buddha preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra.
16. Furthermore, the Buddha preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra to explain the absolute point of view
(pdramdrthika siddhdntalaksana). There are four points of view (siddhdnta): 1) the mundane point of view
(laukika siddhdnta), 2) the individual point of view (prdtipaurusika siddhdnta), 3) the therapeutic"" point
of view (prdtipdk.sika siddhdnta), 4) the absolute point of view (pdramdrthika siddhdnta)."* In these four
to the east, dove into the sea, emerged, rolled to the south, to the west andto the north. Cf. Maluisiulassanaiiasutta, Digha,
II, p. 172-173 (tr. Rh. D, II, p. 202-203); Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 2), k. 3, p. 21c-22a; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 68), k. 14,
p. 515; Ta tcheng kiu wang king, T 45.
Lastly, we may note thai the itinerary south-west-north is not the only one attributed to the Prajna. Others are also
mentioned in the sources:
a. South-north itinerary, in the oldest version of the Paiica\ imsati due to Moksala, T 22 1, k. 10, p. 72a.
b. South (daksimiapatha) - cast (vartani = purvadesa) - north (uttarapatlia) itinerary in the original Sanskrit of the
AOtasahasrika, ed. R. Mitra, p. 225. Here is this text: ime khu
buddhacaksusa.
c. Itinerary of the land of the Sakya clan (Che che:l65 and 13; 83) - east (Houei to ni: 73 and 9; 36 and 3; 44 and 2 =
vartani) north ( )';/ tanyue: 75 and 22; 30 and 9; 73 =uttaravati), according to the version of the Astasahasrika due to the
Tche k'ien, T 225, k. 3, p. 490a.
(I. Itinerary southcast-south-southcast-northwcst-north-northcast, in the latest I'ahcavimsati ami the Astasahasrika b\
Hiuan tsang, T 220, k. 439, p. 212c-213c; k. 326, p. 808b-c.
It is very likely that tin miln him eiii < irlii I of Ih c pa ig< li b< aiHnlili d in the course of time.
For the success of the Prajna in the north, a passage of the Mpps (k. 67, p. 531b) is of interest for the follow ing reason.
When the Buddha was in the world, he was able to cut through the doubts of the samgha: the Buddha's doctrine was
prospering and there could be no fear of its disappearance. But five ccnturii | i d iflcr tin Buddha' .in ma. the good
law was disappearing little by little, the work of the Buddha was threatened. Then beings of sharp faculties (tiksnendriya)
will study and meditate [on the Prajnaparamita]; they will make offerings of flowers and perfumes. Beings of weak
faculties (mrdvindriya) will transcribe it and also make offerings of flowers and perfumes. These two classes of beings
w ill n tin Ion run u <<l il ition 1'hi prof ind I jhaparamila ill pi id I hi u h the i gion of the north Indi J ol
all the regions of Jambudvipa, that of the north is the most vast. Moreover, there are the Snowy Mountains (Himalaya)
and, since it is cold there, its plants arc able to detroy the poisons [of desire, hatred and delusion]. Because of the grains
eaten there, the three poisons do not have such great strength. For this reason, the number of those who practice the
Prajnaparamita in the north are many."]
°" This is the literal translation of Lamotte's French. Monicr-Williams gives 'hostile, adverse, contrary' for pra.tipa.ksa.
The theory of the four siddhantas appears as a development of the theory of the two truths, relative truth
I i tya) and absolute truth (p< uirti i i\hich i vplaincd in ICathavatthu Comm. p P'i p'o cha, "I 1545,
k. 77, p. 399b-400c (tr. Lav, MCB, V, 1937, p. 161-169; Kosa, VII, p. 130; Madh. vrtti, p. 492; Madh. avatara, p. 70 (tr.
points of view are contained, in its entirety, the twelve-membered scriptures (dvddasdriga) and the eighty-
four thousand baskets of the doctrine {caturastti-dharmapitakasahasra). All four points of view are true
(satya) and do not contradict one another (ananyonyavyapakrsta): in the Buddhadharma, there are realities
of mundane order, realities of individual order, realities of antidotal order and realities of absolute order.
a. What is the mundane point of view (laukika siddhdntayl Real dharmas resulting from causes and
conditions {hetupratyayasdmagri) exist, but do not have a nature distinct (bhinnasvabhdva) [from these
causes and conditions]. Thus the chariot (ratha) exists by the coming together of the pole, the axles, the
spokes and the rim of the wheel, but there is no chariot distinct from its constituent parts. In the same
way, the individual exists by the coming together of the five aggregates (skandha), but there is no
individual distinct from the skandhas. If there were no mundane point of view, the Buddha would be a liar.
Why did he actually say: "With my very pure divine eye (divyacaksus), I see that, according to their good
or bad actions (kusaldkusaladharma), beings die here and are reborn there in order to undergo retribution
(vipaka). Those who have done good actions are reborn among the gods (deva) and among men
(manusya); those who have committed [59c] bad actions fall into the three unfortunate destinies
(durgati)."^ Moreover, a sutra says: "A person has been born into this world for the joy, happiness and
Lav, Vluscon, VIII, p. 313); Bodhicaryavataara, IX, v. 2. It is also discussed in the Mpps, k. 38, p. 336b. Sec Ollramarc,
Theosophie, p. 300-303; Lav., Doci i Ihliidlutn Les deux, les quat >i verii VI ( B, V, p. 159-187. - The
first three siddhantas correspond to the relative truth, the fourth to the absolute truth.
saiddhanta + 2) pratipaurus/iika siddhanta + 3) pratipaksika siddhanta.
Paramarthasatya = 4) paramarthika siddhanta.
To my [Lamotlc's] know ledge, (he llieon of the (our siddhantas appears only in the Mpps. However, the Bodh. bhumi, p.
37, mentions four tattvas or realities and four degrees of knowledge:
! ) lokaprasiddhatattra, common reality, known to the whole world: 2) vuktiprasiddhatattva, reality established on proofs,
i i ; k 111 ph reofl i ledge free of any obstacle consistently consisting of passion: 4)
.' avaraiji vis\ Idhij ui;. c, a <li> phen il kno\ ledge free of any obstacle to consciousness. For the ｅxpressions
klesa- and jheydvarana, frequently found in the Vijnanavadin texts, see Trimsika, p. 15, Samgraha, p. 6;
.Yladhyanta\ ibhahga, index; Siddhi, p. 366. - It is clear lhal. under these different names, the four tattvas of the Bodh,
bhiimi correspond exactly to She tour siddhantas of the Mpps.
° 2 When the Buddha speaks of the person, the individual, it is from the mundane point of view for, from the absolute
view, the individual is not different from the live skandhas that constitute him. Most of the texts mentioned here are taken
from chap. IX of the Kosa, dedicated to the refutation of the pudgala.
83 An allusion to the reply of the nun Vajira (Sila in the Kosh) to Mara. Cf. Samyutta, I, p. 135; Tsa a han, T 99 (no.
1202), k. 45, p. 327a; T 100 (no. 218), p. 454: Kinnu satto tipaccesi.... hoti satto to sammuti II
These stanzas are cited in Kathavatthu, p. 66, Kosa, IX, p. 249, and Madh. avatara, p. 257, of which here is the Tibetan
version: hdag ces hya hdud kyi sans... Jam rdzoh seins can fes hyaho The comparison of the chariot is repeated and
developed in Milinda, p. 27: Kim pana iuaharaja....tho ti - Na hi bhante ti.
° 4 This vision of the Buddha arises from the knowledge of the death and birth of beings which he acquired on the second
watch of the night of enlightenment. This discovery is described in the same terms in the Sanskrit tradition (e.g.,
L ,ih istai i a l laha lu, 11, p. 2 I bal till m \ ild hmidt, li ' i 21:1 im i n i til i il id [
129-130) and in the Pali tradition (e.g., Dlgha, I, p. 82; Majjhima, I, p. 23, 348; II, p. 21, etc.):
Sanskrit: Atha ha ttvo div\ cak.su >i t s\ lot >apad\
usefulness of many people. This is the Buddha Bhagavat."°-' In the same way, the Fa kiu (Dharmapada)
says: "A mind is able to save a mind; another man is able to save a mind; the practice of good and wisdom
is the best savior."°° Also, the Buddha has said in the P'ing cha wang ying king (Bimbasararajapratyud-
gamanasutra): "The ordinary person (prthagjand) does not listen to the Dharma, the ordinary person is
attached to the Atman."° ' However, in the Fa eul ye king (Sutra of the two nights of the Dharma, or
Dharmaratridvyayasutra), it is said: "From the night when he acquired the Path to the night of the
parinirvana, every teaching given by the Buddha is true and not false."°° Now if the individual did not
Pali: So dibbena
° 5 Anguttaia I p 22 I i \i a han, T 125, k. 3, p. 561a9;
Kosha, IX, p. 259.
°° I [Lamotte] am unable to locate this citation either in the Dhammapada or in the Udanavarga.
87 T 26 (no. 62), k. 11, p. 498b 10: These bdlaprthagjanas who have understood (asrutavai) nothing see the self as their
self and become attached to the self. But there is no 'mc' Unman) and there is no 'mine' (dtmiya). The 'me' is empty, the
'mine' is empty. - A parallel passage in T41, p. 826al9: Those who call what is not a self a self are fools {bald) who have
understood little.
I h I una or Biinh \ i i is well known
1) A portion of the San I ril >ri lii I ntith I />'/ isai in lias been recovered from central Asia by the Turfan
expedition and published in Waldschmidt, Bruchstucke, p. 1 14-148.
2) It is quoted in Kosa, III, p. 84, IX, p. 249 i<nl IX iv\ ikhj i [ 99 > > th \ niskaram in. ...I m
ill ',
3) It has been translated tw ice into Chinese: a. P'in pi so lo \\a > i (1 imbi raraj pratyud im n lili i) in
Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 62), k. 11, p. 497b. - b. Fo chouo p'in p'o so lo wang king (Bimbasarasutra), translation of Fa
hien, T41,p. 825.
4) There is a Tibetan version entitled: Mdo chen po gzugs can snin pos bsu ba €es bya ba
(BimbasarapratyudgamanamahasiUra), Mdo XXV, 2 ) Csoma-Feer, p. 275; OKC, no. 955). It has been analyzed by
Waldschmidl in Bruclistiicke, p. 144-148.
5) The Sarvastivadin Vinaya (Che song liu, T 1435, k. 24, p. 174b) considers the P'in po cha lo po lo che k'ie mo nan
(Bimibasarapratyudgamana) as one of the 'great sutras' known concerning a very learned upasaka.
Bimbasara met Sakyamuni twice. A first meeting occurred before the Buddha's enlightenment, al Rajagrha near
Pandavapabbata. The Mpps will allude to it below, k. 3, p. 77a. The second meeting was after the enlightenment;
Bimbasara with a numerous retinue went to the Buddha whom he found at the Supatitthacctiya of LaUhivanuyyana. I he
i up 1 1 1 irarajapratytid nn m uti reiei ihi < 'niil m ii ind i then that th 1 in onvci d alon ith all
his people. This conversion is related in the Vinaya and the Lives of the Buddha: Vinaya, I, p. 35-39 (tr. Rh. D. -
Oldenberg, I, p. 136-144) to be compared with Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 1074), k. 38, p. 279a-c, and T100 (nO. 13), k. 1, p.
377a-c. - Mahavastu, III, p. 443-449. - Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 16, p. 110a. - Sseu feu liu, T 1428, k. 33, p. 707c. - Ken
pen chouo. ..p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 7, p. 135 seq. - Dhammapadattha, I, p. 88 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, I, p. 197). -
Nidanakatha, p. 83.
°° This so-called "Sutra of the two nights" is a well-known aphorism found in DIgha, III, p. 135; Ahguttara, II, p. 24;
Itivuttaka, p. 121; Sumahgala. I, p. 66; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 137), k. 34, p. 645M8: yan ca rattim tathdgato....eva hoti
mt> annatha.
truly exist, why would the Buddha say [without lying]: "With my divine eye I consider beings"? It must be
concluded that the individual does exist, but only from the mundane point of view and not from the
absolute pount of view.
Question. - The absolute point of view is true (bhutam satya) and. because it is true, it is called absolute;
the other points of view cannot be true.
Answer. - That is not correct. Taken separately, the four points of view are true. The true nature (tathatd),
the nature of phenomena (dharmatd), the summit of existence (bhutakoti), do not exist from the mundane
point of view, but they do exist from the absolute point of view. In the same way, individuals exist from
the mundane point of view, but do not exist from the absolute point of view. Why? When the five
aggregates (skandha) that are the causes and conditions {hetupratyaya) for the individual exist, the
individual exists. Just as when the color (rupa), odor (gandha), taste (rasa) and tangible (sprastavya) that
are the causes and conditions for milk (ksira) exist, the milk exists. If milk did not really exist, the [60a]
causes and conditions for milk would not exist either. But since the causes and conditions for milk really
do exist, it too must exist. °" Since the causes and conditions for a second head (dvitiya sirsa) or a third
hand (tritiya hasta) do not exist in humans, it is out of the question (prajnapti) lor them. Such
characterizations (nimittandman) consitute the mundane point of view
b. What is the individual point of view (pratipaurusika siddhdntdft It is to preach the doctrine taking into
consideration (apeksya) the state of mind (cittapravrtti) of the individual. The latter understands or does
not understand the given subject. Thus a sutra says: "As a result of actions of different retribution
(sambhinnavipakakarma), one is reborn in different universes (sainhhinnalokaclhtiiu), one experiences
different contacts (sambhinnasparsa) and different feelings (sambhinnavedana)."® on the other hand, the
P'o k'iun na king (Phalgunasutra) says: "There is no-one who undergoes contact; there is no-one who
experiences sensation. "1
Question. - How do these two surras agree?
Answer. - There are people who doubt the here-after (amutra), who do not believe in sin (papa) or merit
(punya), who commit evil acts (akusalacaryd) and who fall into the wrong view of annihilation
(ucchedadrsti). In order to cut these doubts (samsaya), to suppress these bad practices and uproot this
Later it was accepted thai 1 13 h ill i li mill neons emission of voice ( iliin I. o n lli m
he does not speak at all (cf. Vasumitra, p. 20; Fo houa yen king, T 279, k. 80, p. 443c; Wei mo kie so chouo king, T 475,
k. 1, p. 538a: Niraupamyastava by Nagarjuna, v. 7, in JRAS, 1932, p. 314: nodahrtam tyaya....(lliarinayarseria turpi nth:
Hoboidrin, p. 215-217; Siddhi, p. 796). The "Sutra of the two nights" was modified consequently: Madh. vrtti, p. 366,
1 ,i i ratlin ipi pra iris) I'ahjika, p. 419: ytisytini ratrat it nsrin
- Lahkavatara, p. 142-143 yam ca > i i
°" The exanple of milk is repeated in Kosa, IX, p. 239.
"" Cf.Anguttara, 1, p. 134: Yatth' assa attahinivo....va aoare va pariydye. - Tr. When a person is reborn, his action ripens
iiid lien thi ii mi i ii| h under > h iribulion in thi lil lim oi inothci
yl Samyutta, II, p. 13; Tsaahan, T99 (no. 372), k. 13, p. 102a ' i ahan ddmi vediyatiti aham naxadaini.-
ianskrit fragments of the I'hakuinasutra in ICosa, 1 p 60; ICosavyakhya, p 07
wrong view of nihilism, the Buddha asserts that a person is reborn in different universes, with different
contacts (sparsa) and different sensations (vedand). But Phalguna himself believed in the existence of a
soul (dtman), the existence of the purus a , and had fallen into the wrong view of eternalism (sasvatadrsti).
He asked the Buddha: "Venerable one (bhadanta), who is it that experiences sensation?" If the Buddha
had replied: "It is such and such (amukd) a one who experiences sensation", Phalguna would have fallen
more deeply into the wrong view of eternalism, his belief in the pudgala (individual) and the atman (soul)
would have grown and been irremediably strengthened. That is why the Buddha, when talking to him,
denied that there is a being who feels (vedaka) or a being who touches (sparsaka). Characteristics such as
these are called the individual point of view. "^
"^ It is a well-known fact that in his teaching, the Buddha takes into account the intention and state of mind of his
questioner. See the interview of the Buddha with Vacchagotta: Samyutta, IV, p. 400; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 961)., k. 34, p.
245b; T 100 (no. 195), k. 10, p. 444c.
The Buddha refuses to say to Vacchagotta whether the self exists or whether it does not exist. Ananda asks him the
reason. '1'hs Buddha explains himself by saying: If. Ananda. when the wandering monk Vacchagotta asked me: " Does the
self exist?", I had answered him: "The self exists", that would have confirmed, Ananda, the doctrine of the Samanas and
Ih Brahmana who bclicv m tcrnalism 11 Mm? hm di. , indcrin monl l i ha oil iskcd m Do< di. ell
not exist?", I had answered: "The self does not exist", that would have confirmed the doctrine of the Samanas and the
Brahm i In In < in nihili in. II <i u I i i> th \ ind rin m nl \ ii i II iskcd me: "Docs the self exist", I
had answ red I . elf exists' would that hav< been n ful in m ikin tin knovvlcdgi risi in him that II dh nni ■ in
non-self?" - "That would not have been so, O Lord." - "If, on the other hand, Ananda, when the wandering monk
Vacchagotta asked me: "Does she self nol exist", I had answered: "The self does not exist", would thai nol have had the
i ul 'i | j ii ii i'i nid mi ii ii i ha 1 i ii in n mi nccpl n inl n un i • i mi nccption I
self did not exist previously. And now it does not exist at all." (Oldcnbeu , Bu '■ h i, p 309-310). - Similarly Kosa, IX, p.
262-4: Why has the Bhagavat not declared that the vital principle (/ira) is the body'? Because (lie Bhagavat lakes into
consideration She intention {(isaya) of the person who is questioning him. The latter understands by jiva, nol an imaginary
being, the simple designation of the elements, but an individual, a real living entity: and on thinking of this individual, he
asks if the jiva is identical with or different from the body. ThisyTva does not exist in an absolute manner: it bears no
iiii n in h i fid n H i inl i in Ii i h 'I ih i I ic condemns both answers. In the same way,
one cannot say that the hairs of the tortoise are hard or soft... Why does the Bhagavat not answer that the jiva does not
exist in an absolute way? Again because he takes into account the intention of the questioner. The latter perhaps is asking
H nil ill | i ilh hi J ili i ill / is th n if elements I < l. If the Bh ival t d ih t the jiva does
not exist absolutely, the questioner would fall into wrong view. Besides, as the questioner is incapable of understanding
dep nd. ii' in in i i, nit, ' U< i noi i uitabli rci i i n lc toi the holy Dharma: the Bhagavat therefore does
not tell him that the jiva exists (inly as a designation. Lav. Virvana, p. 118-119: " The scholastic likes to say that the
Buddha varied Dr. hin ; accoiding to the dispositions of his listeners: that some sutras, of clear meaning {uitartlia),
must be undertood literally; dial oilier sutras, of implicit and non-inferential meaning (iieyartlia) must be interpreted: a
convenient hypothesis for the exegctists and legitimate in mans cases. The Canon sees in the Buddha a physician, the
great physician: the scholastic represents him as an empiricist. Hie Buddha was afraid lest the common man. reassured on
the side of hell, should not commit sin; he wants the wise to learn to divest themselves of all egotism: thus to some he
leaches the existence of a self and to others the non existence of a self in the same way the tigress carries her young ones
in her jaw: she locks her teeth just enough so that they don't fall - into the heresy of nihilism of the empirical self- but
c. The antidotal point of view (prdtipaksika siddhdnta). - There are dharmas that exist as counteragents
{pratipaksa) but do not exist as true natures (bhutasvabhava). Thus hot {usna), fatty (medasvin), acidic
{katuka), salty (lavana) plants and foods {osadhydkahdra) are a counteragent in illnesses of wind
{vdyuvyddhi), but are not not a remedy in other sicknesses.93 Cold {sita), sweet (madhura), bitter {tikta),
acrid {karkasa) plants and foods are a counteragent in illnesses of fire {tejovyadhi) but are not a remedy in
other illnesses. Acidic {katuka), bitter {tikta), acrid {karkasa) and hoi {usna) plants and foods are a
countergent for chills {sitavyadhi) but are not a remedy in other illnesses. It is the same in the
Buddhadharma, to remedy sickness of the mind {cetovyddhi). Contemplation of the disgusting
{asubhabhavanay^ is a good counteragent {kusala pratipaksadharma) in the sickness of attachment
{rdgavyddhi); it is not good {kusala) in the sickness of hatred {dvesavyadhi) and is not a remedy
{pratipaksadharma). Why? Asuhhabhdvana is the contemplation of bodily defects {kayadosapariksa); if a
hateful man contemplates the faults of his enemy, he increases the flame of his hatred. - Meditation on
loving-kindness {maitricittamaniskdra) is a good remedy in the sickness of hatred {dvesavyadhi); it is not
good, not a remedy, in the sickness of attachment {rdgavyddhi). Why? Loving-kindness (maitricitta)
consists of seeking reasons for love for others and contemplating their qualities (gund). If a person full of
attachment seeks the reasons for love and contemplates the qualities [of the person whom he loves], he
increases his attachment {rdga). - The contemplation of causes and conditions {hetupratyayapariksa) is a
good counteragent in the sickness of delusion (mohavyddhi); it is not good, not a remedy, in the sicknesses
of hatred [60b] and attachment {rdgadvesavyddhi). Why? Because it is as a result of previous wrong
contemplation (pitrvamitliyapcuiksu) that wrong view (mithyadrsti) arises. Wrong view is delusion
(inolia). ■ -'
Question. - In the Buddadharma it is said that the twelve causes and conditions {hetuprayaya) are profound
{gambhira). Thus the Buddha said to Ananda: "This dependent arising {pratityasamutpdda) is profound
{gambhira), difficult to see {duridrsa), difficult to understand {duravabodha), difficult to discover
{duranubodha), difficult to penetrate {duradhigamana), knowable only by a sage of subtle and skillful
avoids hurting them - with the teeth of the heresy of self as a real thing." The comparison of the tigress is from
ICumaralabha, in Kosa, IX, p. 265.
" i For pathogenesis and medical practices, sec Hobogirin, BhB, p. 249-262.
v_i Asubhabhavana, contemplation of the decomposing corpse, will be studied below, k. 19, p. 198c-199a. - Scriptural
ciii' i hi inn ' i w i si 1 1 1 ii rous, e.g.,Vinaya, III, p. 68; Digha, II, p. 296: Vlajjhima, 111. p. 82: Ahguttara, 111, p. 323. - Pali
ii >l li i hi I'n mm n i' [i ha ulna (tr. Rh. D., p. 63, n. 2); Visuddhimagga, p. 178; Rh. D., Brethren, p.
123: Warren, Buddhism, p. 353; Aung, Compendium, p. 121, n. 6; Hardy, Eastern Monaehism, p. 247. - Sanskrit sources:
Siksasamucchaya, p. 209 (tr. Bcndall-Rouse, p. 202; Bodhicaryavatara, VIII, v. 63; Hubcr, Sutralamkara, p. 190 191:
Kosa, VI, p. 149; Kern, Manual, p. 54; Przyluski, Asoka. p. 386.
"^ The ideas expressed in this line are repeated and developed by Santidcva in his Siksasamucchaya, chap. XII:
Contemplation of the horrible (asuhhahhavana) is the antidote [pratipaksa) for raga (p. 206 212): loving-kindness
(inaitri) is the remedy for hatred (p. 212-219); the analysis of depend ill m m i \t\ tint I irsana) is the
antidote for mahanusaya (p. 219-228). Cf. Tr. Bendall-Rouse, p. 196-215.
mind (suksma nipunapanditavijndvedanTyd). If a fool (mudhd) can barely understand superficial
phenomena, how could he understand profound causes and conditions? Then why do you say that the fool
should contemplate the law of causes and conditions?
Answer. - The word 'fool' does not mean stupid in the manner of an ox (go) or sheep (edaka). The fool is a
person who is seeking the true path, but who, as a result of wrong thoughts and contemplations, produces
all kinds of wrong views (mithyddrsti). For him, contemplation of causes and conditions
(hetupratityapariksd) is a good counteragent. But for people prey to hatred or passion (dvesardgacarita)
who voluntarily seek pleasure or are angry with their neighbor, such a contemplation is not good, is not a
remedy; it is contemplation of the disgusting (asubabhdvana) or contemplation of loving-kindness
(maitnchttamanasikdra) which would be a good remedy for them. Why? Because these two
contemplations are able to uproot the poisonous thorn (visakantaka) of hatred and attachment (rdga).
Furthermore, there are beings attached (abhinivista) to the erroneous thesis of eternalism (nityaviparydsa),
who are ignorant of the series of similar moments (sadrsasamtdna) [that constitute a phenomenon]."' For
such people, contemplation of the transitory nature of the dharmas (lit. anityapariksa) is of therapeutic
order (prdtipdksika) and not of absolute (pdramdrthika) order. Why? Because all dharmas are empty of
self nature (svahlulvasftnya). Thus a stanza says:
To see the permanent in the transitory,
That is a mistake.
In emptiness, in the point of the transitory,
How could permanence be seen there?"°
"" The words addressed by the Buddha to Ananda are, rather: gambhira cdyam Ananda paticcasanmppado
imbhiravabh i:ci m utl i II p. 92; DIgha, II, p. 55; Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 13), k. 10, p. 60bl0; Jen pen yu
cheng, T 14, p. 242a; Tchong a han, T 16 (no. 97), k. 24, p. 578b; Ta cen yi, T 52, p. 844b. - The more developed
formula, given b) the Mpps, was pronounced by the Tathagata at the foot of the Ajapalanigrodha tree, after his
cnlightncmcnt: Vinaya, I, p. 4; DIgha, II, p. 36; Majjhima, I, p. 167; Samyutta, I, p. 136, etc.: adlugato klio me ayam
dhainino gainhluro duddaso duraiiuhodho santo panito atakhavacaro nipuuo panditavedamyo. - The Sanskrit phrase is
longer and shows less uniformity; it occurs in Mahavastu, III, p. 314, 1. 15; Mahavyutpatti, no. 2914-2927: Lalitavistara,
p. 392; Divya, p. 492 (which is very close to the Pali): i>amhhu-o me dharmo
gambhirdvabhasi ' ' / ivijndvedaniyah.
"' In other words, they ignore the momentary nature of the dharmas (dharmaksanikatvd). According to the Buddhism of
the Lesser Vehicle, the phenomenon perishes from instant to instant and is reborn, similar to itself, from moment to
moment. It thus appears as a series (samtana, prabhandha) of similar mom in i I. The Sarvasti id
Vaibhasika and the Sautrantika schools debate on the duration of the ksana and on the evolution of the samtana
(Karmasiddhi-prakarana, Introduction, p. 1-30).
98 Madh. karM, XXIII, 13, p. 460; Tchong louen, T 1564, k. 4, p. 31cl0; Pan jo teng louen che, T 1566, k. 14, p. 123a6:
anitya iiityain ity cvain graho viparyayah ■
nanityam vidyat in • <o viparayayah //
Question. - All conditioned phenomena (samskrta) have a transitory {anitya) nature: that is an absolute
mark. Why do you say that the transitory is unreal (asatyaf! Conditioned dharmas (samskrta), by virtue of
the marks of arising (utpada), duration (sthiti) and cessation (bhangay", first arise, then last, and finally
perish; why do you say that the trasitory is unreal?
Answer. - Conditioned dharmas cannot have these three marks (lakhana). Why? Because these three marks
are not real. If birth, duration and cessation were marks of the conditioned, these three marks would
equally have to be present at the arising of the conditioned, for arising is a mark of the conditioned. In the
same way, these three marks each would equally have to be present separately everywhere, which would
be absurd. It would be the same for duration and cessation. Since birth, duration and cessation, taken
separately, do not each [and per modum unius] have birth-duration-cessation, they cannot be called marks
of the conditioned (samskrtalaksana)f^ Why? Because the marks of conditioned dharmas do not exist.
Consequently, the transitory nature of dharmas is not of the absolute order.
Furthermore, if every real entity (bhutasvabhava) were transitory (anitya), retribution of actions
(karmavipdka) could not take place. Why? Because transitoriness is the cessation after arising. Just as as a
rotten seed (putika bija) [60c] cannot produce a fruit (phala), thus there would be no action (karman) and,
the act not existing, how could there be retribution (vipaka)! Now every good doctrine (aryadharma)
"" The marks of the conditioned dhaim i i I i ia) ha\e aheady been mentioned in the canonical
riptun i 1 1 i i marl irisin: (i , ' I aid a ilion (i ' I in I i i han I 99 (no 49) I ) thro marl risin;
u ) lion (vuyti) ind i li n oi ih i In. h lasts (p >i main ah liattu), in th irn pond n i ili
[il » i Samyutta, III, p. 37; Anguttara, I, p. 152: karam tin vuso....pa ivai i >i tin third marl tin i i
tarn a ii i I i i tl i rati in th rrcspo 1J1 1 inskril n i ' iiem
collection. A. Stein, JRAS, 1913, p. 573; Madh. vrtti, p. 145): tnnimani hhiksavah samskrtasya....prajhdyate; - (4) the
Abhidharma allows only three marks: Kathavatthu, I, p. 61: Visuddhimagga, p. 431, 473; Aung, Compendium, p. 25. -
Some scholars omit even duration or sthiti (cf. Aung. Points of Controversy, p. 374 375).
li n i n 1 larl) i iti il l l in marl nilii l, old age ( luration l ) m ' tint rmanence
(anityata): P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 38, p. 198c9; Kosha, II, p. 222. The marks of the conditioned occur in the definition of
kshana, the instantaneous duration of phenomenon. See the study by Lav., Notes sur le moment des I'aiihhasika el des
Sautrantika, MCB, V, 1937, p. 134-158. As real entities, they are rejected by the Sautrantikas (Kosa, II, p. 226-228), the
Madhyamikas (Madh. vrtti, chap VII Sai < p 145-179) and the Vijfianavadins (Siddhi, p. 64-68). In its
refutation, tin vlpp id il inspiration i pccialh from tin ladh rtti
100 j ne ar g UmC ni is taken up in Madh. karika, \ III, 2, p 146: utpadadyas trsyo....katham ekadd.
Tr.: The thrci mark mm cd I 'mi en ii itel_\, aie incapable of filling the role of marks of the conditioned. Taken
together, how could they occur in one single category al the same time'' - Hie commentary (p. 146-147) explains: At the
time of duration, birth and cessation do not exist. Thus duration belongs to something which lacks arising and cessation.
Bui a category that lacks arising and cessation does not exist. Consequently, duration cannot be applied to a cak ; n
nonexistent as a sky-flower... on the other hand, the three marks cannot occur in one single category at tiie same time, for
they are opposite to one another like desire and renunciation or light and shadow. Who could reasonably claim thai one
and the same category lasts and perishes at the very moment that it is born?
accepts retribution. "1 That which should be believed by a person of good knowledge (kushalajnana)
should not be denied. Therefore the dharmas are not transitory. For innumerable reasons of this kind, we
say that the transitoriness of the dharmas cannot be affirmed. [What is said here about the alleged transitory
characteristic of the dharmas] is also true for their nature of suffering (duhkhe), of non-self (anatmaka),
etc. 2 Characteristics of this kind are called the therapeutic point of view.
d. The absolute point of view (pdramdrthikasaddhdnta). - Every essence (dharmata), every category of
speech (upadeshdbhidhdnd), every dharma and adharma, may be subdivided (vibhaktd), broken into pieces
(bhinna) and scattered (prakirnd), one after the other; but the true Dharma (bhutadharmd), the domain
(gocara) of the buddhas, pratyekabuddhas and arhats can neither be broken apart nor scattered. That which
has not been understood (t'ong) in the preceding points of view is completely understood here. What is
meant by 'understood'? By 'understood' is meant the absence of any defect (sarvadosavisamyoga),
unchangeability (aparinclmatva), invincibility (ajeyatva)}^ Why? Because if one deviates from the
absolute point of view, the other teachings (upadesa), the other points of view (suddhdntd) are all
destroyed. Some stanzas in the Tchongyi king (ArthavargTya sutra) 104 say:
10!
For Buddhists, belief in (lie after-life and the retribution of actions is the corner-stone of morality. Negation of good
and evil is the wrong view (mithyadrsti) par excellence (Kosa, IV, p. 36, 137, 167). - on the other hand, the Buddha
recognized the Jatilas, worshippers of fire, and admitted them without noviciate (parivasa) "because they believe in
karma" (Vinaya, I, p. 71).
!" 2 All dharmas are transitory (aiiicca), perishable (vayadhaiiiina), non-self (aiiatta) and of suffering (dukklia). Cf
Samyutta, 111 p 44 (th i irn pondin; Sanskrit ii h < 1 may be found in JRAS, 1913, p. 573, ami the Chinese version in
Tsa a ban, T 99 (no. 84), k. 3, p. 21c): rupctii • i / i i idayt ivchi. - Other rcfcrcni in Rhys Davids
I id > ira mi nin
l"-* ｅxpressions to designate the absolute arc not lacking in Buddhist texts. Lav. in Siddhi, p. 748-750 cites some lists
which arc given here:
1) Ta pan jo lo mi to king T 220, k. 360, p. 853cl0: tathatd dharmata, avitathatd i I, m ltd
dharmaniy wna, <<'., '/ <ia //// ; ikd idhatu <hutakoti, acintyadhatu.
i 1 iipi | ' 1 ' uddhah \ it i nkndbhidhiyate.
3) f n I i ii nonym i. 1m ijiiana ,1m uti CI imdhinirmo na, p / tliata, dliaiiu
llitirn i r i i a i i \ ' i i i > ' ' ' ratinya unyiita -
Lanka ii !i ., |> 192 193 miro lia aiiutpada uiiyata tathatd uityata hhutakoti 'hannadhatu nirva ■ nitya imata
4) All these words are repeated and defined in the Vijnanavadin treatises. Madhyantavibhahga, p. 49-51: tathatd
iii i - in i in [> I 1 / i ii iii i
dlianiiadhdtii; - Tsa tsi louen, T 1606, k. 2, p 702b . ithai > n< ii i mya uiiyata iiiiinitl ■ hi, n ikoti pai marl < i
1 i ii 1 in I ii i I 1 ii 1 (i i J / in i i vata and i
hhutakoli, paraniartlia.
L®4 These Arthavargiyaiji sutraiji, Atthakavagga in Pali, constitute one of the earliest of the primitive Buddhist
documents.
In Pali., the Atthakavagga "Section of the Light" is a group of sixteen surras forming the fourth chapter of the Suttanipata.
which itseli is the fifteenth work of the Khuddhakanika\a.. fourth and last collection of the Suttapitaka (cf. Winlcrnitz,
Being based on wrong views (drsti)
And on futile nonsense (prapanca), each one gives rise to quarrels (vivdcla).
Seeing the arising of all that
Is the correct view of knowledge.
If the refusal to accept the system of another (paradharma)
Is the action of a fool {bald),
Then all the teachers (upuclesin)
Are, in truth, fools.
[61a] If being based on personal views
In order to produce futile nonsense
Constituted pure knowledge,
Literature, II, p. 92-98; Law, Pali Literature, 1 p. 232 '■>()) 1'inl i ill nam Ittl i t or A iva ihi
book is cited in Vinaya, I, p. 196; Samyutta, III, 12; Udana, p. 59.
I'hcrc exists in Sanskrit an r rather Art! vlcanin f which Ira m i i> i
been found in eastern Turkestan (cf. M. Anesaki, JPTS, 1906-1907, p. 50 seq.: R. Hoernle, JRAS, 1916, p. 709 seq.;
i9!7,| 134) ill < •.-ill 1 i _"- .in utrani in cited in Di\ yavadana, p. 20, 35: in Bodh. bhumi, p. 48, and according to
Kosavyakhya, p. 33, they are part of the Ksudrakagama (arth i vai u ni Ksudra pathyante). 1 ndi i th titli
ArthavargTyasutra, in Tibetan Don ;.>yi tslioms kyi inch, it is cited in the Dulva.
li has been translated into Chinese by Tchc k'icn, between 223 and 253, under the name 17 tsou king i 123 and 7; 157; 120
and 7), literally, "Sutra of the Feet of Meaning". T 198, IV, p. 174-188.
The work is often quoted in the Chinese Tripitaka, unfortunately under ver\ different titles that often do not permit
immediate identification. Here are some references:
(1) Transliterated titles: A t'o p'o king (Arthavargiya sutra) in Mpps, T 1509, k. 1, p. 63c. - A t'o po k'i sieou tou lou
(.\iili M i litra) in Ih irva ivadin Vina i T 1435, k. 24, p. 174b.
i translated till i lion im iniii if i in in ikta im I l >9 (no. 551), k. 20, p. 144b and c:
Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 34, p. 176a; Hiuan tsang's translation of the Kosh, T 1558, k. 1, p. 3b; Yogacaryabhumisastra, I
1579, k. 36, p. 489a.
i lion on Meaning or Ai I in Pai im h i ranslatii n >l h I osa T 1559, k. 1, p. 164a.
Tchong yi king (Sutra of all Meanings! in Mpps, T 1509, k. l,p. 60c.
Tchongyip'in (Section of all meanings) in Vibhasa, T 1543, k. 4, p. 17a; k. 137, p. 706a.
Chouo yi (Explanation of Meaning) in the P'i ni mou king, T 1463, k. 3, p. 818a.
Clie lieou yi j i (Sutra of th n Sections of M in i i ih vl in ' * u i i T 1421, k. 21, p. 144b.
Pa po k'i kin ( utra if the liight lions or. i vast ) in th laha mi In 1 inaya, 'I 14 ' p. 416a
Che lieou yi kiu (Sutra of the Sixteen Phrases of Meaning) in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1428, k. 39, p. 845c.
There would be no-one of impure knowledge. ^
In these three stanzas, the Buddha is concerned with the absolute point of view.
[First stanza]. - It is said that ordinary people depend on wrong views (drsti), on systems (dharma), on
theories (updesa) and therefore stir up quarrels (vivdda). Futile nonsense (prapanca) is the origin of
quarrels and futile nonsense gives birth to wrong views (drsti). A stanza says:
Because one adopts systems, there are quarrels.
If no-one accepted anything, what could they discuss?
By accepting or rejecting 'views'
People are all divided.
The yogin who knows this does not accept any system (dharma), does not accept any nonsense
(prapanca), adheres to nothing and believes in nothing. ^6 N ot re ally taking part in any discussion
ll " These stanzas probably mean: (1) The real truth consists of not adhering to any system, in not entering into any
acholastic quarrel. - (2) Indeed, all the teachers are fools: they treat as fools those who do not accept their ideas and
themselves are treated as fools by their adversaries.
(3) All claim to have found the truth and, if they were to be believed, in the world there would be only impeccable
philosophical systems.
These three stanzas roughly correspond to the first five strophes of the Culaviyuhasutta, the twelfth sutta of the
Atthakavagga (Suttanipata,, v. 878-882; tr. Fausboll, p. 167-168; tr. R. Chalmers, Buddha's Teachings, Cambridge M,
1932, p. 211). The Pali text differs considerably from the citation of the Mpps given here, as well as the Chinese
translation of Tche k'ien in T 198, k. 2, p. 182a-b).
j 1 ) Saliain saliain....alievait do.
(2) Evampi viggayha....kushala vaddnd.
(3) Parassa ee dliaininain....iine dittliiparihhasana.
(4) / L ' '
(5) Na vdham etam....tiparam dahanti.
Transl. The Disciple. ■ (1) Fixed in personal views, many [masters], quarreling amongst themselves, affirm that they arc
[the only] wise ones [and say]: "Those who accept thai understand the [true] doctrine; those who reject that are
imperfect." - (2) Quarreling thus, they debate and say: "My adversary is a fool, an ignoramus." Then what is the true
doctrine among all of these, because all these [masters] claim to be [the only] wise ones?
The Buddha. - (3) If he who does not recognize the doctrine of his adversary is a fool, an inferior being of little
intelligence, then all of these [masters] arc fools of little intelligence, [for] all hold to their own [personal] views. (4) Or,
if they are truly purified by their own views, if they are of pure intellect, wise and mindful, no-one among them is of little
intelligence for their views are equally perfect. - (5) But I do not call 'reality' thai which these fools say to one another.
They make the truth of their ow n view : thai is why they treat their adversary as a fool.
1^6 jijg horror of the Buddha and his disciples for any argument, more pretended than real, is well known:
utl nip i ; i ii i nskrit text in Bodh humi p - 1 > kascana
\aiiivrtayo....kaiitiiii asamovakurvan. - Tr.: The Muni does not take up the opinions that are current in the world, for he is
independent. How could the person who feels no attraction to what he sees and hears submit himself.'
(vivada), he knows the taste of the ambrosia (amritarasa) of the Buddhadharma. To act otherwise is to
reject the doctrine.
[Second stanza]. - If all of those who do not accept the systems of others (paradharma), who do not know
them and who do not adopt them, were ignoramuses, then all the masters (upadesin) would be
ignoramuses. Why? Because, taken individually, each one reject the systems of his neighbors [to adhere to
his own]. Actually, a system that affirms itself to be absolutely pure (paramdrthasuddha) is denigrated by
others as being impure. Such, for example, are the mundane penal laws (dandadharmd), by virtue of which
executioners carry out punishments (danda), executions (vadha) and impurities (asubha) of all kinds. "'
Worldly people accept them and hold them to be absolutely pure, whereas others, pravrajitas and aryas,
consider them to be impure. According to the ccustoms of the tlrthikas and the pravrajitas, one stays
between five fires, one stands on one leg, one tears out one's hair, etc. "° - What the M k'ien tseu
(Nirgranthaputras) hold as reasonable, other people call foolishness. In the various systems of the tirthikas,
pravrajitas, svetabaras, brahmanas, etc., each considers good what his neighbor denigrates. - In the
Buddhist system as well, there are Tou tseu { Vatsiputriya) bhiksus who say: "Just as there is a dharma 'eye'
(caksus) by the coming together of the four great elements (caturmahdbhutasamyoga), so there is a dharma
'individual' (pudgalay^ from the coming together of the five aggregates {pancaskandhasamyoga).
In the Tou tseu a pi fan (Vatslputrlyabhidharma) it is said: "The five aggregates (skandha) are not separate
from the pudgala and the pudgala is not separate from the five aggregates. It cannot be said that the five
aggregates are the pudgala nor that there is a pudgala apart from the five aggregates. The pudgala is a fifth
Samyutta, 111. p . 138: y i i i mskril text in Madh. vrtti 0: lol
sardhain....taii nasti samatam. Tr.: It is the world that argues with me, it is not I who argue with the world. That w hich is
accepted in the world is also accepted by me, that which is rejected by the world is also rejected by me. - Chinese
translation in Tsa a han, T99 (no. 37), k. 2, p. 8b.
Madh. vrtti, p. 57: The sdi n < < i iV n i i Ih il lut< I hi Iiv aiyanaiu tu nuiihluivah)
Samdhinirmocana, 11, par. 4: Cognizable by intuition, neutral domain, ineffable, destroyer of ordinary experience: that is
the absolute. Its nature transcends all speculation.
107 F or p ena i punishments, see Jolh , Recht undSitte, p. 129-131.
10 ° Compare Aryadeva's Po louen, T 1569, k. 1, p.l68b. - Several surras inform us about the ascetic practices al the time
of the Buddha, e.g., Majjhima (no. 12), I, p.68-83; (no. 14), I, p. 91-95. Lav. Histoire, I, p.290-314, has an important
chapter on Hindu ascctiscism, mendicant and monastic life and the sects of the Buddhist epoch.
luy Belief in the personality or Pudgalavada, defended by several Buddhist sects (Lav., Nirvana, p. 34), is generally
attributed to the VatsTpuin i immiti is (sec I vyakhya p 699). The only text of the school that has come down to
us, the San mi ti pou louen, T 1649, has not yet been studied (cf Przyluski, Concile, p. 73; La\ ., Introduction to the Kosa,
p. LX-LXII). The Pudgalavada is especially known by the texts that oppose it and the general works on the Buddhist
sects. See Vasumitra, p. 53-57; Bhavya in Wallescr, Sekten, p. 87; Katthavatthu, p. 1 (tr. Ann;!. Points of Controversy, p.
8-14); L. de La Vallee Poussin La contro\ In i ' ' I'iji va, LA, ] ' >
chap. IX, p. 227-302 (important document from which later (realises have drawn widely); Sutralamkara. cd Levi, p. 154-
160 (tr. Levi, p. 259-265); Bodhicaryavatara, IX, v. 73, and Pannjika, p.471-484; Madh. vritti, p. 340-481; Madh. avatara,
p. 233-287 (tr. Lav., Museon, 1911, p. 282-328); Tattvasamgraha, I, p. 125-130 (tr. S. Schayer, Karmalasilas Kritik des
Pudgalavada, RO, VIII, 1932, p. 68-93; tr. Jha, I, p. 217-226; Siddhi, p. 14-15.
category, an ineffable (avaktavya) dharma, contained in the pitaka.™ The adepts of the Chouo yi ts'ie
yeou (Sarvastivada)Hl say: "The pudgala is not established in any way, in any time, in any text
(dharmaparyaya). It is non-existent like the homs of a hare (sasavisana) or the hairs of a tortoise
(kurmaroman). Furthermore, the eighteen elements (dhdtu), the twelve bases of consciousness (dyatana)
and the five aggregates (skandha) truly exist, but the pudgala is not found among them." 112 on the other
hand, in the Buddhist system, the adepts of the Fang kouang (Vaipulya) say: "All dharmas are unborn
(anutpanna), non-destroyed (aniruddha), empty (sunya) and non-existent (akimcanay^. They are non-
existent like the horns of [61b] a hare (sasavisana) or the hair of a tortoise (kurmaroman)."* '^ All these
H" The VatsiputrTyabhidharma has been lost, if the Mpps is to be believed (below, k. 2, p. 70a), at least ionsofar as it
here concerns the Saripulrabhidharma, i IMS, particularly respected by thcVatsIputrfyas,. - But the text cited here is
found in the San mi ti pou louen, T 1649, k. 1, p. 465b29: It cannot be said thai the skandhas and the atman are differenl
or non-different... The atman also is ineffable (avaktavya). - Kosa, IX, p. 232: The > ,' lpulri i i cpl i pud ila that i
neither identical with the elements nor other than tin: elements: ibid. p. 237. I he Vasiputnya maintains that She pudgala is
ineffable (avaktavya) concerning its relationship, identity or non-identity, with the elements... He distinguishes five
itcgorics of phenomena capabl fbcin ignizcd ( II l: (1-3) oiiJn oi J [ I) n nn >i i i <i
in other words, past, present and future phenomena; (4) non-caused phenomena (asaiiiskrta). and (5) the ineffable or
pudgala. - Madh. avatara, p. 268: Some maintain the real existence of a pudgala of which one cannot say that it is
identical with the skandhas or different from the skandhas, permanent or impermanent it i ignizcd ic six vijha
it is the object of the concept of self.
HI The Sarvastivadin doctrine is that the self is merely a designation of the series of elements and a self does not exist in
it. No proof, no proof of evidence, no proof of induction, establishes the existence of a self independent of these elements.
Thai which in common language is called soul, self, vital principle, person, is merely a series (samtana, samtati), of
hi' h "li I i" .i he relationship of cause and effect ubj I to the 1 >i lusality (pratih mtpada). 1 hi
I n linn d i 1 n, Digha, 111, p. 105 l i i i li III 1 J t ma) »a adopted and
developed by all the schools of the Lesser Vehicle which reject belief in a pudgala and profess uairdtmya. For the school
of ji Pali langua i !i Jinnii ol iva i in planation inJ onu Icicnces will be found in Samgraha, p. 8-10.
For the Sarvastivadin-Vaibhasika 'series' on (he one hand and the Sautrantika 'series' on the oilier hand, consult Kosa, II,
p. 185: good resume in Lav., Morals, p. 196-200: Karmasiddhiprakarana, Introd., p. 15, 23-27.
11 2 Cf. Kosa, IX, p. 247: The Bhagavat said io a brahman: "If I say that everything exists, it is a matter of the twelve
bases of consciousness (dyatana)." The pudgala nol being included in these twelve dyatanas, it does not exist. - The surra
io which the Kosa alludes here is in Tsa a han, T 99 (nO. 319), k. 13, p. 91a: Everything, i.e., the twelve ayatanas. eye,
etc. - Compare Samyutta, IV, p. 15, sabbani is defined by the enumeration of the twelve ayatanas. from the eye up to
dharm I h in liii i, p. I > net i latanani; \ osa, V, p. 64.
113 Nihilistic statements of this type abound in the surras of the Greater Vehicle, e.g., Samdhinirmocana, VII, v. 1:
i \ ' / / ' ta prakrfipan i I dl Hi nn u uh mii hi Kin mil in, non-d In id 1m
from the beginnini ind i i nn .11, nip iiir Idi nn ,1 phi i in R nn inn "li i uti . cited in Madh. vrtti, p. 225, and
Subhasilasamgraha, .Vluscon, Iv, 1903, p. 394; Sulralamkara, cd. Levi, XI, v. 51, p. 67; Samgraha, p. 128;
Gaudapadakmarika, IV, 93.
11 4 The horn of a hare (sasavisena) or the hair of a tortoise (kurmaroman) - also the sky-flower (khapuspa) or the son of
a barren woman (vandhyaputra) - arc comparisons often used to designate impossibilities. Cf. Jataka, III, p. 477;
Lankavatara, p. 41, 51, 52, 53, 61, 104, 188, 291, 341; Kosa, IX, p. 263.
teachers boast about their own system but reject that of others: they say: "This is true, the rest is false (idam
eva saccam mogham annam). "* ^ It is their own system that they accept, it is their own system that they
respect (pujayanti), it their own system that they practice (bhdvayanti). As for the system of another, they
do not accept it, they do not respect it: they criticize it.
[Third stanza]. - If by the sole fact [of having a system of their own] these teachers were pure and attained
the absolute good, then there would not be any impure teachers, for they are all of them attached to a
system.
Question. - If the views (drsti) are all false, what is the absolute point of view (pdramdrthika siddhdnta)!
Answer. - It is the path that transcends all discourse ( sarvadesandtikrdntamdrga), the arrest and destruction
of the functioning of the mind (< ittapi ay tti Uhitinh odha), the absence of any support (andsrayd), the non-
declaration of the dharmas (dharmdndm anidarsanam), the true nature of the dharmas {dharmdndm
satyalaksanam), the absence of beginning, middle and end (anddimadhydnta), indestructibility
(aksayatva), inalterability (aviparindmatva). That is what is called the absolute point of view. 1" It is said
in the Mo ho y en i; hi (Malta anai hagalha i
The end of discourse,
The arrest of the functioning of the mind,
Non-arising and non-destruction,
Dharmas similar to nirvana.
Speaking about subjects promoting action (abhisamskdrasthdna):
Those are mundane systems.
Speaking about subjects promoting non-action (anabhisamskdrasthdna):
That is the absolute system.
Everything is true, everything is false,
Everything is both true and false at the same time,
Everything is both false and true at the same time:
That is the true nature of the dharmas. * '
' I' An old phrase used in arguments as conclusion to a thesis, cf. Majjhin
" For the names of the absolute, see above.
' Cf. Madh. vitti, p 369 i atln • < ithyam > ' Imcldliaiuisascm
In various sutras of this kind, it is said that the absolute point of view (pen at < In I ha i
profound (gambhira) meaning, difficult to see (durdrsci), difficult to understand (duravabodha). The
Buddha preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra to explain [this meaning].
17. Furthermore, the Buddha has preached the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra because he wanted the
brahmacarin Tch'ang tchao ( DIrghanakha) ^ ° and other great masters (upadesacarya), e.g., Sien nip'o ts'o
k'iu to lo (Srenika Vatsagotra)! *" and Sa tcho kia mo k'ien t'i (Satyaka Nirgranfhlputrajl^O t0 nave f a j m
(sraddha) in the Buddhadharma. These great masters of Yenfeou t'i (JambudvTpa) said that all the treatises
can be refuted, all the confused affirmations | vdda) and all the twisted beliefs (graha), and consequently,
there is no true religion deserving of belief (sraddha) or respect (arcana, satkara).
1 1° See below for DIrghanakha. the monk 'Long Nails'.
H" Vatsagotra, Vacchagotta in Pali, was a parivrajaka who became arhat after being converted. He had various
conversations with the Buddha, notably on the fourti < n iinan , < i ibl point (avyakrtavi i below, k. 2, p. 74c). Pali
canon: Tevijjhavacchagotta, Majjhima, no. 71, I, p. 481-483; Aggivacchagotta, ibid., no. 72, I, p. 483-489;
Mahavaccliagotta, ibid. no. 73„ I, p. 489-4 ( )7 Vacchagotta, Ahguttara, I, p. 160-162: Vaccliagottasaniyutta, Samyutta,
III, p. 257-263. - It is odd that am in ill hhi< < mi is, it is only in the Tsa a han that Ihc abo\ c cited Pali texts have
their parallels. Thus T 99 (no. 95), k. 4, p. 26a-b, identical with T 100 (no. 261), k. 12, p. 465c, corresponds to the
Vacchagotta of the Ahguttara, I, p. 160-162. - T 99 (no. 962), k. 34, p. 245b-246a, identical with T 100, (no. 196), k. 10,
444c-445c, corresponds to the Aggivacchagotta of the Majjhima, I, 483. - T 99 (no. 963), k. 34, p. 246a-b, identical w ith
T 100 (no. 197), k. 10, p. 445c-446a, corresponds with Vacchagottasamyutta of the Samyutta, III, p. 237. - T 99 (no. 964),
k. 34, p. 246b-247c, identical with T 100 (no. 198), k. 10, p. 446a-447b, corresponds with Mahavacchagotta of the
.Majjhima, I, p. 489. Thus it is c l ibli lied that th Chin myukta m h i < ml in d in o a singl li >n all the
passages relating to Vatsa* otra found .« ittered in the Pali Nikayas.
It may be noted that the Pali texts mention only the family name of Vatsagotra: he belonged to a wealth) brahmanical
family of the Vaccha clan (comm. of the Theragatha, I, p. 221; tr. Rh. Davids, Brethren, p. 101). The Mpps informs us
that his personal name was Srenika, like that of Bimbasara
" Sa tcho kia mo k'ien t'i should be corrected to Sa tcho kia ni k'ien t'i tseu, the proper reading attested by T 99, k. 5, p.
35a, and T 125, k. 30, p. 715b. The equivalents proposed by Soothill-Hodous, p. 488b, arc fanciful; they concern Saccaka
Niganthiputta. He was the son of a Nigantha and a well-known NiganthI who, unable to win over one another in a
discussion, finally were married under the advice of the Licchavis of Vcsali (I'apahca, il, p. 268). He had four sisters.
Sacca, Lola, Patacara and Sivavatika whom Sariputta had converted. Saccaka himself was a a great debater
) and did not lack claims to pretension: "I do not see any shramana or brahamana, founder of a
community, at the head of a group of disciples, who, even if he passes as perfectly enlightened, would not tremble in all
his limbs, would not be agitated and would not swca' mi th rm pit i 1 ■ > n i d m di li \ ith me ", he said to the
people of VesalT. "Even if I engaged in debate with a post devoid of intelligence, it would tremble and be agitated. What
then of a human being?" (Majjhima. p. 227: cf Mpps. k. 26, p. 251c). That did not prevent him from being shamefully
defeated by the Buddha. Reduced to quia "like a crab, the claws of which have been broken", he acknow ledged his defeat
and followed the Buddha. Saccaka appears in two sutras:
(1) Culasaccaka sutta: Majjhima, no. 35, I p. 227-237 (tr. Chalmers, I, p. 162-169); Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 110), k. 5, p.
35a-37b; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 30, p. 715a-717b.
(2) Mahasaccakasutta: Majjhima no. 36, 1 p. 237-251 (tr. Chalmers, I, p. 170-179.
I 111 ih ,/ king (S >x 1 1 mi iv i i ii i hi i) i\ i ,i n i i ii 1 iidti ) illccl Mo I
tch'e lo*2l (Mahakausthila), in a [learned] discussion with his sister Cho li (Sari), reflected thus: "My
sister is not very strong; she may become pregnant with a sage (Jndnin) who would borrow his mother's
mouth in order to speak. ^2 if he is wise before he is even born, what will he be like after birth when he is
grown up?" This thought hurt his pride (abhmana) and, in order to increase his knowledge, he left home
and became a brahmacarin. He went to southern India (daksinapatha) and began to study the great treatises
(sastra).3 People asked him:
[61c] "Brahmacarin, what are you looking for, what are you studying?" DTrghanakha (Kausthila's surname)
replied: "I want to study the eighteen great treatises in depth." They replied: " If you would dedicate your
whole life to understand a single one, then how would you ever come to the end of all of them?"
DTrghanakha said to himself: "Previously, I acted out of [injured] pride because I was outshone by my
sister; again today these men are covering me with shame (gurulajja). For two reasons, I take an oath
henceforth not to cut my nails (nakha) before I have exhausted the eighteen treatises. "124 Seeing his long
'-' Mahakausthila (in Tibetan, Gsus po die, 'Big Belly': in Chinese, Ta si, 'Big Knees': cf. Mahavyutpatti, no. 1063),
later siirnamcd the monk 'Long Nails' (Dirghanakha, brahmacarin) was the son of the brahmin .Vlathara, the brother of
San and the uncle of Sariputra. He is therefore different from the Vlahakotthita of (he Pali sources whose father was
Assalayana and mother, Candavad, but who was himself also especially linked with Sariputra (cf. I hcragatha, v. 1006-8).
The documents on Dirghanakha may be arranged in three categories:
(1) The Dlrghanakhasutra. - Pali text in Majjhima, no. 74, I. p. 497-501 (tr. Chalmers, p. 351-353). - Fragments of the
iii kril i i di i ercd in hit i i 1 nil I u mil lished by 1 Pischcl, Bruciistiici /< > » / / \oi I' '
aus Idykutsari, SPAW, 1904, text p. 814, 1. 21-816 1. 7, explanations, p. 822-923. - Chinese transl., Tsa a han, T 99 (no.
969), k. 34, p. 249a-250a; T 100 (no, 203), k. 11, p. 449a-b. - This surra is sometimes designated as Dlrghanakhasutra
i M h t i m 111 [i l ii i mil i / ' i I h ii n i ti 1 1 iii h I i l mi il 111 1 1 pi! i
IV, p. 87).
i i 1 1 > 'in di i \ f Dirghanakh i ii n It u I idi his di i hi nil di 'uM'i
and his conversion. - Sanskrit text in Avadanasataka (no. 99), II, p. 186-196 (tr. Feer, p. 418-430). Chinese transl., Siuan
tsi po yuan king, T 200 (no. 99), k. 10, p. 255a-157a). Same story in Ken pen chouc.tch'ou kia cha, T 1444, k. 1, p.
1023a (voyage of D. in southern India to study the L ' i i ystem); k. 2 hi i i i i lion of D. and < utama)
See Csoma-Feer, p. 152, 155. - P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 98, p. 509b-c. Ta tche tou louen, T 1509, k. 1, p. 61b-62a (full
story); k. 1 1, p. 137c (voyage of D.; tr. Chavannes, Contes, III, p. 293-294).
i i l hi Dirgluin a iptirivrtij iriprccliii, of which then isl i Tibetan translation entitled Kim tu rg ha i ci
€us pa, Mdo XXVIII, 2 (OKC no. 1009; Csoma-feer, p. 283); a Chinese translation by Yi tsing, entitled Tch'ang tchao
fan tche ts'ing wen king, T 584, vol XIV, p. 968; a Sogdian translation entitled Brz n'y'n syns'ry wp'rs, re-edited by E.
Benviste in TSP, p. 74-81. It concerns the meritorous actions of the Buddha which merited iiis physical marks.
122 The same idea in the Lieou tou tsi king, T 152 (no. 66), k. 6, p. 35b-36a, tr. Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 240-244: " A
young child is killed at the moment when he was about to hear the holy book of Pi ijii ip i; unit i recited; he was reborn in
the belly of a woman who, while she was pregnant, was able to recite the Prajnaparamita; when she was delivered, she
lost her knowledge, but the son whom she brought into the world recited the Prajnaparamita as soon as he was born."
12 -' According to T 1444, k. 1, p. 1023a, Kausthila went to southern India to study the Lokayata system.
124 Cf. P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 98, p. 509b: Why did he keep his nails long? Thirsting for practice, he was not in the habit
of cutting them. According to others, he followed the custom of the highlandcrs who never cut their nails raid hair. Others
nails, people called him the brahmacarin 'Long Nails' {dirghanakha). By the wisdom that he derived from
treatises of all kinds, this man refuted (nigrhnati) by every means Dharma and Adharma, compulsory and
optional, true and false, being and non-being. He confounded the knowledge of his neighbors
(paropadesd). Like an enraged mighty elephant (gaja) whose raging trampling cannot be directed, the
brahmacarin Dirghanakha, having triumphed (abhibhavati) over all the teachers by the power of his
knowledge, returned to Mo k'ie t'o (Magadha), to Wang cho (Rajagrha) in the public square (naranigama).
Having come to his birthplace, he asked people: "Where is my nephew (bhagineya) now?" They said to
him: "From the age of eight years, your nephew has exhausted the study of all the treatises (sastra).-'
When he was sixteen, his learning triumphed {abhibhavati) over everybody. But a monk of the Che clan
(Sakya), called Kiu t'an (Gautama) made him his disciple." At this news, filled with scorn (abhimana) and
disbelief (asraddhya), Dirghanakha exclaimed: "If my nephew is so intelligent (medhavin), by what trick
( vancana) has this Gautama succeeded in shaving his head for him and in making him his disciple?"
Having said this, he went at once to the Buddha.
At that moment, having been ordained a fortnight ago (ardhama-sopasampanna), Cho lifou (Sariputra)
was standing behind the Buddha, fan in hand (vyajanavyagrahasta), fanning the Buddha. The brahmacarin
Dirghanakha saw the Buddha and having exchanged salutations with him (katham vyatisarya), sat down to
the side. He thought: "All treatises can be refuted, all refutation can be confounded and all beliefs can be
overcome. Then what is the true nature (satyalaksana) of the dharmas? What is the absolute (paramartha)!
What is self nature (svabhava)? What is the specific nature (laksana), the absence of error (aviparydsa)'?
Such questions are tantamount to wanting to empty the depths of the ocean. He who attempts them will be
a long time without discovering a single reality capable [62a] of affecting the intellect. By what teaching
(upadesd) was this Gautama able to win over my nephew?" Having reflected thus, he said to the Buddha:
"Gautama, no thesis is acceptable to me (sarvam me na ksamate)." The Buddha said to Dirghanakha: "No
thesis is acceptable to you; then even this view is not acceptable to you?" The Buddha meant: You have
already drunk the poison of false views (mithyadrstivisa). Now expel the traces of this poison
(yisavasana).® You say that no thesis is pleasing to you, but this view does not please you? - Then, like
a fine horse (asva) which, on seeing the shadow of the whip (kasacaya), rouses itself and goes back to the
proper route, in the face of this shadow of the whip that is the Buddha's speech (buddavdc), the
brahmacarin Dirghanakha collected himself and laid aside (nisrjati) all pride (darpa);^' shameful
(lajjamdna) and with drooping head (adhomukha) he thought: "The Buddha is inviting me to choose
say that Dirghanakha. while still in the world (grlwstlui) loved to play the guitai (hien konan): later, when he became a
monk, he remained attached to his long nails and did not cut them. Yet other masters say that he was a member of those
religious heretics who keep their nails, that is why he was called the brahmacarin 'Long Nails'.
12 -* According to the Avadanasataka, II, p. 187, Sariputra, at the age of sixteen years, had studied the grammar of Indra
(aindra vydkarana).
126 jjjg i n t en tion of the Buddha is to lead Dirghanakha to abandon his opinion without adopting another. This is very
clear in die Dirghanakhasiitta and the Avadanasataka. 1. c.
12 ' An allusion to a stanza of the Dhammapada, v, 144, Sanskrit Udanavarga, p. 240: bhadro yathusvulj
kasaydbhitddita. . . .prajahati duhkham .
between two contradictions (nigrahasthana). ° If I say that this view pleases me, that is a gross
(aiickiiika) nigrasthana which is familiar to many people. Why then did I say that no thesis is pleasing to
me? If I adopted this view, that would be a manifest lie (mrsavada), a gross nigrahasthana known to many
people. The second nigrasthana is more subtle (suksma); I will adopt it because fewer people know it."
Having reflected thus, he said to the Buddha: "Gautama, no thesis is agreeable to me, and even this view
does not please me." The Buddha said to the brahmacarin: "Nothing pleases you, and even this view does
not please you! Then, by accepting nothing, you are no different from a crowd of people. Why do you puff
yourself up and develop such pride?" The brahmacarin DIrghanakha did not know what to answer and
acknowledged that he had fallen into a nigrasthana. I Ic paid homage to the omniscience (sarvajnunu) of
the Buddha and attained faith (sraddhdcitta). He thought: "I have fallen into a nigrahasthana. The
Bhagavat did not make known my embarrassment. He did not say that it was wrong, he did not give his
advice. The Buddha has a kind disposition (snighacitta). Completely pure (paranuisuddlui), he suppresses
all subjects of debate (abhilapasthana); he has attained the great and profound Dharma
(muhugumhluixiclluiiiiui): he is worthy of respect (arcamyd). The purity of his mind (cittuvisuclclhi) is
absolute (parama)."
And as the Buddha, by preaching the doctrine to him, had cut through his wrong views (mithyadrsti),
DIrghanakha at once became free of dust (viraja) and defilements (vigatamala) and acquired the perfectly
pure (visuddha) Dharma-eye (dharmacaksus). Also at that moment, Sariputra, who had been following this
conversation, became an arhat. 12 " The brahmacarin DIrghanakha left home (pravrajita) and became a
monk (sramana); he became a very powerful arhat. If the brahmacarin DIrghanakha had not heard the
Prajnaparamita preached, the powerful doctrine excluding the four alternatives (catuhkotikavarjitay™ and
dealing with the absolute (paramarthasamprayukta), he would not have had faith. How then would he ever
have been able to gather the fruit of the religious life (pravrajitai idrgaph ila) ' 1 herefore it is in order to
convert the great teachers (upadesacarya) and men of sharp faculties (tiksnendriya) that the Buddha
preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra.
18. Furthermore, the Buddhas have two ways of preaching the Dharma: [sometimes] they take into account
(apeksante) the minds (citta) of their listeners and adapt themselves to the beings to be converted
(vaincya), [sometimes] they have in view only [the object of their sermon], the nature (lakshana) of the
[62b] dharmas. Here, the Buddha preaches the Prajnaparamitasutra in order to speak about the true nature
of the dharmas. Thus it is said in the chapter of the Siangpou siang (Laksanalaksanaparivarta) that the
gods (deva) asked the Buddha: "This Prajnaparamita is profound (gambhira); what is its nature (laksana)?"
The Buddha repied to the gods: "It is empty (sunya). It has as its nature existence and non-existence
'- :>l The nigruhusthuiuis. faults against logic, were catalogued by the Buddhist logicians; see, e.g., a list of 22
ni i i ill an in larka islra tin i ' hniulga, p. 33-40.
" Cf. Avadanasataka, p. 194: atln \ vaisaii ' i
130 Th teaching that excludes the four alternatives is that which establishes the four-branched syllogism: "Nothing
\\h icvcr arisi liclhcr of itself, or of olh >r of both, oi ithoiit an\ us< I his l itivil liich charactcri ill
Vkulhyamaka (cf. Keith. Buddhist Philosophy, p. 237-241: Lav., Madhyamaka. p. I 1 )! has already been presented by
Sariputra in the canonical scriptures: Samyutta, II, p. 1 12-115; Tsa a han, Y 99 (no. 288), k. 12, p. 81a-c.
(hluivclhluivalu ) < ind non-< ilion (ciiuii, 1 uihn hi), cITorll in
(anabhisamkdralaksana), the true eternal innate natu / <' /;«). n in a
(nirvdnalaksana), etc." 131
19. Again, there are two ways of preaching the Dharma: 1) dealing with argumentative subjects
(aranasthana), 2) dealing with pacifying subjects (aranasthana). In dealing with argumentative subjects,
one will refer back to what has been said in other sutras!-^. Here, the Buddha preaches the
Prajnaparamitasutra to shed light on pacifying subjects: the Prajnaparamita has a nature of existence and of
non-existence (bhavdbhavalaksana); it is both substantial (bhutadravya) and non-substantial
(abhutadravya), with support (sdsraya) and without support (andsraya), offering resistance (sapratigha)
and not offering resistance (apratigha), lower (sottara) and higher (anuttara), cosmic and acosmic.
Question. - With his predisposition of great loving-kindness and compassion (mahdmatri-karundcitta), the
Buddha should deal exclusively with pacifying subjects {aranasthana); why does he also speak about
contentious subjects (ranasthdna)?
Answer. - The pacifying (aranasthana) points of the doctrine are all without nature (alaksana), eternal
(nitya), calm (sdnta), ineffable (avacaniya). 1 Icre, the Buddha preaches on generosity (ddna) and the other
[virtues], on the transito (a va) lharn i ul nng(di ikh mptirj (sun} i), etc. All these subjects
are calm (sdnta) and are omitted in fruitless discussions (nisprapanca); that is why he preaches them.
People of sharp faculties (tiksnendriya) understand the Buddha's intention, do not stir up quarrels (rand).
People of weak faculties (mrdvindriya) do not understand the Buddha's intention; grasping at
characteristics | n mittagi dhi), attached to their own ideas (cittdbhinivista), they seek to quarrel with this
Prajnaparamita. But since these dharmas are absolutely emptj (atyantasunya), there is no subject to quarrel
(ranasthdna) with there. ->3 If absolute emptiness (atyantasunya) could be grasped, it would not be
absolute emptiness. That is why the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra is called a pacifying subject (aranasthana),
for with its twofold characteristic of existence and non-existence (bhavdbhavalaksana ), the Prajnaparamita
is peaceful (sdnta).
20. Furthermore, the dharmas are often arranged in other sutras into three categories: good (kusuki), bad
(akiiscilci) and non-defined (avydkrta).^ Here the Buddha wishes to speak about the nature of dharmas
which is neither good nor bad nor non-defined; that is why he preaches the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra. It is
131 This quotation is taken from the Pancavirnsati, T 220, k. 510, p. 604c (of vol VII); T 221, k. 1 1, p. 77b; T 223, k. 14,
p. 325b.
132 The Samdhinirmocana, IV, enumerates a whole series of subjects leading to discussion (e.g., the nature of the
skandlias, dliatus, ayatanas: the scope of the Buddhist truths). Those who debate such subjects arc ignorant that "the
absolute is subtle, profound, difficult to understand and everywhere has the same taste (ekarasalaksaija)."
133 jjjg Vajracchedika, p. 22, expresses the same idea in different words: yctva ibhut < tath
drastavyah. -Tr. - O Subhuti, where there is a seat of characteristics, there is a lie; where there is no seat of
charactcristicas, there is no lie; that is why the Tathagata must be defined by the absence of characteristics.
134 The distil i! 'i I i i od (/ ila) id bad (akusala) dharm i |i n m Hi i J llu i c anon. The Abidharma
ilso distinguish non-di fun d Uivyiilq i) dharma liii h arc ncithci ood nor bail. CI Dhamma ihgani, p 1 V'ibhahga,
p. 180; Nettipakarana, p. 191; Milinda, p. 12. Othei references in Geiger, Pali Dhamma, p. 105-1 13.
the same for the other categories of three dharmas: 1) dharmas of the disciples (saiksa), masters (asaiksa)
and those who are neither disciples nor masters (naivasaiksasaiksa),^'-' 2) dharmas to be abandoned by
seeing the truths (darsanaheya), dharmas to be abandoned by meditation (bhhavanaheya) and the Dharma
which is not to be abandoned (aheya)',o 3) visible dharmas that offer resistance (sanidarsanapratigha),
visible dharmas that do not offer resistance (sanidarsandp) atigha), in\ isible dharmas that do not offer
resistance (anichirsanclpratighaY. ' -' ' 4) lower, middling and superior dharmas; 5) small, great, immense
dharmas, etc.
Furthermore, in other sutras it is a question of the four applications of mindfulness (smrtyupasthdnd)
conforming to the teachings {dharmaparydya) of the sravakas. 1 ^ During this application, the bhiksu
considers (anupasyati) the thirty-six substances (dravya) of his own body (ddhydtmikakdya) and expels the
sickness of attachment ( dga\ vddhi), then he considers the body of another (bdhyakdya) in the same way,
and finally both his own body and that of another (ddhydymikabdhyakdya). Here, in relation to the four
smrtyupasthanas, the Buddha wishes to preach the Prajnaparamita by analogy *•" (paryayena) . Thus he
said: "In considering his own [62c] body, the bodhisattva produces no notion of body (kdyasamjild), docs
not grasp at the body, for the body does not exist. By considering in the same way the body of another,
then both his own body and the body of another, he produces no notion of body, does not grasp at the
body, for the body does not exist. In the course of kdyasmrtyupasthdna, he considers the body without
producing the notion of body: this is very difficult to do. It is the same for the other three smrtyupasthanas,
[application of mindfulness of sensation iyedana), mind and dharmas]." It is the same for the four correct
practices (samyakpradhdna), the four foundations of miraculous powers (rddhipdda), the four dhyanas, the
four truths (satya) and all other groups of four dharmas.
Furthermore, in other sutras, the Buddha spoke of the transitory nature (anitya), the suffering (duhkha)
nature, the empty (sunyd) nature and the non-substantial (anatmaka) nature of the five aggregates
(skandha)} 4 ".Here he wishes to preach the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra in analogy with the five skandhas.
133 Dhammasahgani, p. 184-185; Kosa, VI, p. 231.
136 j n pjjjj j , , 1 ,/ 1 , , , / vu puhutuhhu Dhamma M 11
no. 1002, 1007, 1008, p. 183-183; Vibhanga, p. 12, 126, 97; Kosa, p. 78.
137 Kosa, I, p. 51.
i->° The four smrtyupasthanas play an important part in the canonical scriptures: DIgha, II, p. 290 (tr. Rh. D., II, p. 322-
326); Majjhima, I, p. 56, II, p. 11; Samyutta, V, p. 9, 1412; Ahguttara, I, p. 39, 296; II, p. 256; III, p. 450, IV, p. 300, 457:
el ' 1 • 1 1 // 111c.su (II uiiiiij mskril phi isc in R. I'ischcl, Lin til, , / oils a
Idykutsari, SPAW, XXV, 1904, p. 1 143. - Chinese versions, e.g., Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 98), k. 24, p. 582b; Tsa a han,
T 99 (no. 623), K. 24, P. 174a; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 5, p. 568a. - The smrtyupasthanas have been studied in detail in
the Abhidharma: Aung, Compendium, p. 179: Visuddhimagga, p. 239-266; A p'i fan pa kien tou louen, T 1543, k. 29, p.
905-908; A p'i ta mo fatche louen, T 1544, k. 19, p. 1072-1074; A p'i ta mo fa yun tsou louen, T 1537, k. 5-6, p. 475-479;
P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 187-192, p. 936-960; Kosa, VI, p. 158-162.
*■" Lamotte gives 'equivalence'. Monier- Williams gives 'to approach from, to come near' for the root pary-a-ya.
140 E.g., in Samyutta, III, p. 44: riipan hikklun 11111 cam me so attati Corresponding Sanskrit passage in JRAS,
1913, p. 573; in Chinese, Tsa a han, T 99 (no, 84), k. 3, p. 21c. - Other references in Rhys Davids-Stede, s.v. sankhdra, in
Thus the Buddha said to Siu p'ou t'i (SubhiUi): "The bodhisattva who attributes an eternal function
(nityapravrtti) to color (rupd) is not practicing the Prajnaparamita. If he attributes an eternal function to
sensation (yedana), to perception (sainjna). to the formations (samskdra) and to consciousness (vijiiiina),
he is not practicing the Prajnaparamita. If he attributes to color a transitory function (anityapravrtti), he is
not practicing the Prajnaparamita. If he attribites a transitory function to sensation, perception, formation
and consciousness, he is not practicing the Prajnaparamita." It is the same for the five aggregates of
attachment (updddnaskandha), the five destinies (gati), and all groups of five dharmas. It is the same for
all groups of six, seven, eight or an infinite number of dharmas.
Just as the Mahaprajnaparamita is infinite (apramdna) and unlimitled (anantd), so are the reasons for
preaching also infinite and limitless, for such material is vast. Here we have concluded in brief (samdsatah)
the reasons for the preaching.
fine. - Accoidu lo tin l ibha iiil lh< i >ui p i ol 1< truth .1 ufl i"i in tya, di va and anatmal
(Kosa,VII,p. 31).
NOIL: the lengthy Sanskrit and Pali quotations have been abbreviated for convenience, the beginning and (he ending
given so that they may be located.
CHAPTER II: EVAM MAYA SRUTAM EKASMIN SAMAYE
Sutra. - Evam mayd sruttim cktismin samciye: Thus have I heard at one time.
EVAM141
[63a] Question. - Why do Buddhist sutras begin with the word evam, 'thus"?
Answer. - 1. The Buddhadharma is a great sea (mahdsamudra); faith (sraddha) is its entrj (avatdraka),
knowledge (/nana) is its ferryman (tdraka) Evam is a synonym for faith. 2 The person whose heart is full
of pure faith (sraddhdvisuddhi) is able to enter into the Buddha's doctrine; without faith, he cannot. The
non-believer says: "It is not so {tan naivam)": that is the mark of disbelief (dsraddhyalaksana). The
believer says: "That is indeed so" (evam etat). The disbeliever is like hard leather (gocarman) that cannot
be folded (akuncita); the believer is like supple leather that can be folded for [any] use. Furthermore, it is
said in a sutra: "Faith is like a hand (hasta). Endowed with hands, the man who goes to a jewel mountain
(ratnaparvatd) gathers the jewels (ratna) at will. In the same way, the believer, penetrating into the
Buddha's doctrine - this jewel mountain that contains the pure faculties (andsravendriya), the powers
(bala), the path of enlightenment (bodhimdrga) and the dhyanas - the believer, I say, is able to take
[anything] he wishes. The non-believer is like the person without hands. Without hands, the person who
goes to a jewel mountain can take nothing. In the same way, the non-believer, going to the jewel mountain
of the Buddha's doctrine, can gain nothing." The Buddha said: "If a man has faith, he can enter the ocean of
my great doctrine and attain the fruit of the religious life (srdmanyaphala); it is not in vain that he shaves
his head and puts on the robes (kasaya). If he has no faith, he cannot enter the ocean of my doctrine. Like a
rotten tree (putika vrksa) that is unable to produce either flowers or fruit, he cannot win the fruit of the
religious life. He can shave his head, dye his garments, study all kinds of sutras and sastras, he can gain no
profit of the Buddhadharma." This is why the word evam occurs at the beginning of Buddhist texts: it
refers to faith.
141 In his commentaries on the Nikayas (Sumangala, I, p. 26; Paparica, 1. p. 3: Saratlha, I., p. 4), Buddhagosa n
all the possible meanings of evam along w ilh supporting lexis. 1 his adverb can indicate comparison (upama), information
i i n ppro il i i ' /) pn h {garal i) ccptancc (vaccina mti i i lyl (akara
d< ignation l ma) ind ffirmation l i I • ■ Ihc cxpn n > the adverl i pn
maim n i lation and iffi in ition (vi / / / |. To th nth >i i ill li i
evam symbolizes Ihc faith of the believer in the words of the Buddha that he has heard. Some manuals of Buddhism have
a tendency to present Buddhism as a rationalistic system, a simple appeal to reason (E. Hardy, Buddha, Leipzig, 1903, p.
54; I'ischcl, Leben, p. 54). But Buddhism is also adherence to the word of the Buddha and faith plays an important,
although secondary, role in the discipline of salvation (Kern, llistoire. 1, p. i: Manual, p. 50: Law, Opinions, p. 132-139;
Oltramare, Theosophie, p.341-342; B.M. Barua, Faith in Buddhism, BS, XII, p. 329-349).
Faith is often compared to a boat: saddhdya tarati ogham (Snttanipata, v. 1X4: Samyntta, 1, p. 214: Sanskrit
Udana u i, ] II 1 1 il tmuccha up < p i ibonl th hip of faith l / < i m liich oi mbarl to
go the treasure island (ratnadvipa).
2. Furthermore, the Buddha's doctrine is profound (gambhira) and distant; it requires a Buddha to
understand it. Without being a Buddha, the believer can enter into the Buddha's doctrine by the power of
faith (sraddhabala). Thus, Fan t'ien wang (Brahmadevaraja) invited the Buddha to turn the wheel of the
doctrine {dharmacakra).^ He invited him with this stanza:
In JambudvTpa, at one time, there appeared
Many impure doctrines.
Open the gate of immortality,
Preach the pure path. 144
The Buddha replied with this stanza:
My doctrine is very difficult to grasp,
It is able to cut through the fetters.
143 We have several versions of the invitation (ayacana) of Brahma) to the Buddha. - In Pali: Vinaya, I, p. 5-7 (tr. Rh.
D.-Oldenberg, I, p. 84-88). DIgha, II, p. 36-39 (tr, Rh,D., II, p. 29-33); Majjhima, I, p. 167-169 (tr. Chalmers, I, p. 118-
120); Samyutta, I, p. 136-138 (tr. Geiger, I, p. 213-217; Rh.D.-Woodward, I, p. 171-174). - In Sanskrit: Mahavastu, III, p.
314-319; Lalitavistara, p. 392-402 (tr. Foucaux, p. 326-334). - In Chinese: Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 1)., k. 1, p. 8b-c; Tseng
yi a han, T 125, k. 10, p. 593a-b; Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 15, p. 103c-104a; Sseu fen liu, T 1428, k. 32, p. 786c-787a;
Ken pen chouo...p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 6, p. 126b; P'ou yao king, T 186, k. 7, p. 528; Fang kouang la tchouang yen
king, T 187, k. 10, p. 602-605; Kouo k'iu hien tsai yin kouo king, T 189, k. 3, p. 642c-643a; Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190,
k. 33, p. 803-807 (tr. Beal, Romantic Legend, p. 241-244); Tchong hiu mo ho ti king, T 191, k. 7, p. 952c-953a. - In
Tibetan, see Rockhill, Life, P. 35; Feer, Extraits, p. 14-16.
These various versions show great divergence both as to the number of stanzas exchanged between the Buddha and
Brahma and the very meaning of the words pronounced. one gels i he impression thai the compilers and the translators
only partially understood the meaning of the documents they used
1 44 Vinaya, I, p. 5; Majjhima, I, p. 168; Samyutta, I, p. 137: pdturahosi Magadhesu.... vimalenanubuddham
Mahavastu III, p. 317:;;; u nil iti , i i ddhani
Lalitavistara, p. 398: vddo babhuva....vimalena buddham
By replacing VI I ill \lpps seems to have wanted to handle the Magadhan pride with care. The
same preoccupation may be noticed in the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1450, k. 3, p. 126b: "Finally, now there has
appeared in .Vlagadha an extraordinary (adhhuta) and pure (suddha) doctrine. May the one who has the knowledge of the
dharmas open (he gales of the immortal." - In T 191, k. 7, p. 953a, Brahma invites the Buddha to preach, not only because
Vlagadha is the land of impure doctrines but because at one time unsoilcd doctrines were taught there. "In Vlagadha in the
past there appeared some stainless doctrines. Open wide the gates of the immortal, spread the doctrine and save beings."
The difference between texts is probably due to an old rivalry between Rajagrha, capital ot M i Jli null l in hi
I! Hi uddhas have preached their first sermon (cf th / [The Bu IJIi is ii i il I kcra. 11
p. 296). In the Lalitavistara, p. 402, the Buddha explains why he chose Benares in preference to other cities to give his
first sermon: "I remember the ninety one thousands of kotis of Buddhas who once turned the peerless wheel in this most
Those whose minds are attached to the desire of the triple world (tribhavatrsna)
Are unable to understand it. 145
Brahmadevaraja said to the Buddha: "O Venerable one (bhadanta), in the universe (lokadhdtu),
knowledge is of superior, middling or inferior category. People of sensitive and upright mind can easily
obtain salvation. If these people do not hear the doctrine preached, they fall into grave difficulties. It is like
the lotus (utpala) in the water: some are born, some ripen, some remain within the water without
emerging. ^" If they do not have sunlight (sutyaprabhd), they do not [63b] expand (vikasanti). The
Buddha is like [the sunlight]: sent forth by his great loving kindness and great compassion
(mahdmaitrikarund), that he might have pity for beings and preach the doctrine." The Buddha recalled the
qualities (dharmd) of the buddhas of the three times (tryadvan), nasi (atTtd), future (andgata) and present
(pratyutpanna), all of whom preached the doctrine in order to save beings: "I too", said he, "must do the
same." After having had this thought (manasikdra), he accepted Brahmadevaraja's and the other gods'
invitation (txdhyesa.no) and preached the doctrine. The Bhagavat replied with this stanza:
Now I open the gate to the immortal.
The faithful shall obtain joy.
I preach the wonderful doctrine to men,
I do not preach in order to harm anyone. ^ '
beautiful of all forests (Mrgadava in Benares). Because of that. 1 shall turn the peerless wheel in this most beautiful of all
forests,"
145 Vinaya, I, p. 5; DIgha, II, p. 38; Majjhima, I, p. 168; Samyutta, I, p. 136: kicchena me adhigatam.... tamokkhandhena
Mahavastu, III, p. 314: pratisrota i tin margaiii gi asita narah.
Pratisrotam and anusrotam should probably be corrected to pratisrota m, 'going upstream', raid anusrotam, 'going
downstream'.
Lilni i i ra. p >97 /;; itisrotagaini i irgo gainhliTro.... tasmat prakdsitum.
14 " The exact extent of the comparison between the three categories of knowledge and the stages of maturity of the lotus
appears more clearly in other texts:
A. Vinaya, I, p. 6; Dlgh i II i lajjhima I p 169 mi Lit 1 I. p. 1 Ulasa klio hi \ aiiiij < lak
B. Mahavastu, III, p. 317-i K atlia \lialu hliagavai okain ahliivilokayanto adrdksit.
I In i i i p > ' 400 ' i i i i i i isu vyavasthitan.
14 ' This stan I il I I il HI I i urslators, old and modern. It shows important differences in the Sanskrit
and the Pali texts.
A. Vinaya, I, p. 7; DIgha, 11, p. 39: Majjhima, 1, p. 169: Samyutta, !, p. 138: aparuta tesain amatassa.... mwiujc.su Bnilimc
I'ainuncaiitu .saddliain max mean cither 'that they may reject faith' or 'thai they ma\ have faith': viliiiiisasai'ii'ii is unclear, it
may be translated as 'fearing injury', w ithout know ing \\ hcthcr (he Buddha seared lest he be the doer or the victim of this
injury
H. Oldcnbcrg, in 1881, in his Vinaya Texts, I, p. 88, has translated: "Wide opened is the door of the Immortal to all who
have ears to hear; let them send forth faith to meet it. The Dhamma sweet and good I spake not, Brahma, despairing of the
weary task, to men." He remains faithful to this translation in his Rcdcn des Buddha, Vliinchcn, 1922, p. 41: "Der
bwigkeit lor, cs sci jedem aufgetan der Ohren hat. Mag sich dann Glaul c i n! Vcrgcblii lv liiln u mi id h li .1 i h
das edle Wort moch nicht der Welt verkuundet." - R.O. Franke, Die Suttanipdta-Gathds, ZDMH, LXIII, 1909, p. 7,
comparing this stanza of the lti\ uttaka, \ . 84, also translates pamuncantu saddhain as "mogen /urn Glaubcn gclangcn."
Buddhaghosa, in his commentaries on the Nikayas (Sumahgala, II, p. 471; Papanca, II, p. 181; Sarattha, I, p. 203)
interprets the stanza differently: Aparuta ri, vivata... nesani suiikappan ti. ■
All recent translators side with Buddhaghosa's interpretation: TW. Rhys-Davids, DTgha tr., II, p. 33: "Open for them the
portals to the Undying. Let those thai hear renounce their empty faith! Ware of the fret, I littered not, O Brahma, Religion
good and excellent 'mong men." C. Rhys-Davids, Kindred Savings, I, p. 174: "Open for them the doors stand to
Ambrosia. Let those that hear renounce the faith they hold. Foreseeing hurt I have not preached, Brahma, the Norm
sublime and excellent for men." W. Geiger, Samyutta, I, p. 216-217: "Aufgcschlossen sind die Tore der Imsterblichkeil
fiir die, die da horcn. Aufgcgcbcn sollen sic ihrcn Glaubcn, Vcrlctzung vermutend habe ich nicht ausgesprochen die mir
vertraute Wahrheii unter den Menschen, o Brahman." The interpretation of Buddhaghosa followed by the modern
translators may be based on the version of the M ,f i isaka vlaha i u i.iil Vina; i vlaha astu, III, p. 319, gives
omi li ii ill i iiiiin ni ii > i .in I if i '.1 apa\ i tasya u ! purvan
I ) orrcctin / no \o a < i iguno)\\ 'In > rth pada ins |l iui hi | translation is: "I have opened the door of
the immortal, Brahma' Those who wish to hear the Bhaga\at reject their pernicious belief. At one time among (lie
Magadhans there was a pernicious, inferior, impure doctrine."
The idea is the same in the Mahisasaka Vinaya, T 1421, k. 15, p. 104a: "Previously, fearing useless fatigue (cf. the Pali
vihimsasanni), I did not preach the profound meaning. Now I shall open [the gates] of the immortal. All should listen."
If these texts are compared, "lie meaning of the stanza becomes clear: Previously the Buddha did not preach the doctrine
for fear of useless fatigue, but yielding to Brahma's imitation, he is going to open the gates of the immortal, and all his
listeners should renounce their old beliefs, impure beliefs current in Magadha.
B. But apart from this tradition, which I [Lamotte] would readily call (he Pali tradition, there exist;; another tradition
in h i i 111,1 1 dm ni ii ii n io m i, ih i' lilh nn in >] it h i oin l< | • i > Hi i >i li
imm 'H il lin I lilhful i > lliava > ind no otravantalj) 11 profit from !.i li i Inn Ihi u In,, , ill * niJ d m
harm to others (differenl interpretation of she Pali vihimsasanni). This tradition is represented by a whole series of
Chinese texts, among which is the Vlpps:
bkottaragama, T 125, k. 10, p. 593b: "The god Brahma came to encourage the I athagata to open the gates of the
immortal, flic listeners having sincere faith will understand the profound Dharma. As at the summit of a high mountain,
all kinds of beings are found. I, who possess this Dharma, will climb up to the temple (?. sic) and will manifest the
Dharma-eye."
- Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1428, k. 32, p. 787b: "Brahma, I say unto you: I am going to open the gates (if the immortal.
The listeners will receive it with faith. It is not to molest [beings] that I preach, O Brahma, the marvelous doctrine
obtained by the Muni." - Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1450, k. 6, p. 126c: "To those who listen to the Dharma with joy, I
will open the gates of the immortal. If it were in order to blame and look down on men, O Brahma, I would never preach."
C. Of somewhat confused origin, the Lalitavistara, p. 400, seems to be a contamination of the two traditions: apavritas
tesaiu tas) \tn i lb fth inn rtal, O , fun aie open for those who always
have ears; they enter, those believers who do not think of harm; they listen to the Dharma, the beings of Magadha.
In this stanza, the Buddha does not say that it is the generous person (ddyaka) who will obtain joy, or the
person with knowledge (bahusruta), morality (sfla), patience (ksdnti), energy (vftya), dhydna, or wisdom
(prajna). The Buddha is speaking only of the faithful. His intention is the following: My supreme
(pardma) profound (gambhira) doctrine is subtle (suksma), immense (apramdna), incalculable
(asamkhyeya), inconceivable (acintya), immoveable (acala), without support (andsraya), without
attachment (nirdsahga) and without perceived object (analambana). But it is not true that the omniscient
one (sarvajnd) is unable to explain it. That is why, in the Buddha's doctrine, the power of faith is
primordial. It is by faith that one enters into it and not by generosity (ddna), discipline (sTla), patience
(ksanti), energ) (virya), dhydna or wisdom (prajna). Thus some stanzas say:
In this world, the mind of beings is changeable.
They love the rewards of merit,
But they dread meritorious action.
They seek existence and avoid destruction.
First they listen to doctrines [drawing their inspiration] from wrong views.
Their mind becomes attached to it and they penetrate it deeply.
My doctrine is very profound.
Without faith how can it be understood?
Thus the great disciples T'i p'o ta (Devadatta), 4 ° Kiu kia li (Kokalika) ^ 4 " etc., not having faith in the
Dharma, fell into the evil destinies (durgati). These men had no faith in the Buddha's doctrine and were
unable to discover it by their own wisdom (prajna). Why? Because the Buddha's doctrine is profound
(gambhira). Thus Brahmadevaraja uttered this stanza to Kokalika:
You want to measure the incommensurable doctrine.
The wise man has nothing to measure.
He who wants to measure the incommensurable doctrine
14° Devadatta, cousin and enemy of the Buddha. For the genealogy of this well-known individual, see below, k. 3, p. 83c.
14" Kokalika (Kokaliya) , son of a brahmin and ardent supporter of Devadatta (Vinaya, III, p. 174) allowed himself to be
involved by the latter in a plot against the Buddha (Vinaya, II, p. 196, III, p. 171; Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 25, p. 164). He
appears in several Jatakas (sec Watters, Travels, I, p. 392; Malalasekera, I, p. 673). - Rightly or wrongly, Buddhaghosa
(Suttanipata, Comm. I 1 > J i nn I i 16), distinguisl o i 1 >i> il> kalika riginally i n I 1 ih n
i throw n into tin I'admanira i for ha in .mi ized iriputra md >ln'J I .\ n (below, k. 13, p. 157b-c; Tsa a han,
T 99 (no. 1278), k. 48, p. 351b; Che song liu, T 1435, k. 37, p. 265b-c; Tsapao tsang king, T 203 (no. 28), k. 3, p. 461a-b;
Samyutta, I, p. 149; Ahguttara, V, p. 171; Suttanipata, III, 10; Jataka, IV, p. 242 sq.). For the Mpps, these two individuals
arc apparently one and the same.
Is nothing but a dull worldling. 3U
3. Another meaning of Evam. - The person whose mind in animated by correct faith can understand the
doctrine. Otherwise, he understands nothing. A stanza says:
The listener of pure and clear attention
Attentively (ekacittd) follows the discussions.
Leaping for joy, he hears the doctrine, his mind full of joy:
That is the sort of person to whom it should be preached.
4. Furthermore, the word Evam occurs at the beginning of Buddhist texts. Present happiness
(ihalokasukha), future happiness (amutrasukhd), the happiness of nirvana (nirvdnasukha), all happiness
has its roots {inula) in very powerful faith.
[63c] 5. Furthermore, all religious heretics (tirthikaparivrdjaka) imagine that their own doctrine is subtle
(suksma) and absolutely pure (paramasuddha). These people exalt the doctrine that they practice and
denigrate (nindanti) that of others. That is why, here below, they quarrel and argue; after death, they fall
into hell (naraka) and suffer immense pain of all kinds. A stanza says:
Attached to their own doctrine,
They blame that of other people.
Even by observing moral conduct (silacarya)
They do not escape from the torment of hell.
In the Buddha's doctrine, all attachment {sanga), all false views (mithyddrsti), all pride of self (asmimana),
is abandoned and cut; one becomes detached from them. Thus the Fa yu king (Kolopamasutra) says: "If
you have understood the sermon on the comparison with the raft (kolopama dharmaparydya), you must
abandon the holy Dharma and, a fortiori, adharma."^^ The Buddha himself is not attached to the
Prajnaparamita, why then would he be attached to other doctrines? That is why Buddhist texts begin with
the word Evam. The intention of the Buddha is as follows: My disciples will not love the doctrine, will not
become attached to the doctrine, will not have factions (parapaksd). They will seek only freedom from
suffering (duhkhaksaya), deliverance (vimukti), the nature of dharmas free of empty discussions
I'O Samyutta, I, p. 148: appameyyam paminanto.... manii pu luijjtiiu n
Chinese version in Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 1193), k. 44, p. 323b-c; T 100 (no. 106), k. 5, p. 411b-c. - The Mpps will cite
another stanza later, k. 13, p. 157b-c.
151 Majjhima, I, p. 13 i \ i iji i U ihl i I
dliannaparyayam.... prag evddharmdh; Lahkavatara, p. 17; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 200), k. 54, p. 764b-c; P'i p'o cha, T
1545, k. 97, p. 513b. - The Buddhist doctrine is often compared to a raft w hich must be abandoned when one has crossed
over the river of transmigration: Suttanipata, v. 21; Kosa, I, p. 13;, VIII, p. 186; Siddhi, p. 616; Panjika, p. 413; Lav.
Madliyamaka, p. 31-32; Hobogirin, Batsuyu, p. 62.
(nisprapanca clluuinalaksana). Thus in the A t'a p'o k'i king (Arthavargitasutra), Mo Men t'i nan
(Makandika) spoke this stanza: *"
To defined (viniscita) dharmas
Various notions are wrongly applied.
Rejecting inner and outer
How will the Path be attained?
The Buddha replied:
It is not by view (drsti), tradition (sruti), knowledge (jnana)
Or morality (sila) that it is attained.
It is not by absence of view, tradition, etc.,
Nor by absence of morality that it is attained.
[64a]
It is by abandoning all this chatter,
By also rejecting the 'me' and the 'mine' (atmatmiyd),
By not grasping any real nature (dharmalaksana),
That the Path can be attained.
Makandika said:
If it is not by view, tradition, etc.,
Nor by morality that it is attained,
152 p or Arthavarglya, see above, p. , n. 2.
The stanzas cited here are extracted from the Maganditasutta, Suttanipata, IV, 9, v. 838-841; Yi tsou king, T 198 (no. 9),
k. 1, p. 180. The Pali text shows some differences.
838. vinicchaya i ; i p I ippi ', / pin • Hi un i tin (iti V] ig indiyo)
839. na ditthiya na sutiyd.... anissdytt hlutvani na jappe. (ili Bhagava)
840. no ce kira dittiya na.... eke paccenti suddhim (iti Magandiyo)
1 1 i (ili Bhagava)
- For the nami W i di\ . Mi' ndil i in Sanskrit c< I \, L ign vvcti in i B< Id wie, JA, 1912, p. 498. -
I his person had Ihc pi umpl ion lo offer his daughter VI agandi or iiiupama in marri c to the ] uddh ' i iittanipal
Coram., 11. p. 542 scq.: Dhammapadattha, III, p. 193-195 (tr. Burlingame, III, p. 31-33); Sanskrit fragment from Last
Turkestan described by F.R Hocrnle, IRAS, 1916, p. 709 seq.; Divyavadana, chap. 36, p. 515-529: Ken pen chouo... p'i
nai ye, T 1442, k. 47, p. 886a-19-887. - This individual is probably identical w ith the brahmacarin Makandika, founder of
a sect which will be dealt with below, k. 3, p. 82b. - on the other hand, according lo Buddhaghosa (Tapaiica, 111, p. 209),
tin Via ndiya who appeal \n n\ Via mdiyasiitta of th m ipliu n, I, p. 501-513 (= Tchong a han, T 26, k. 38, p. 670-
673) and in Milinda, p. 313, was the nephew of the preceding Magandiya.
If it is not by absence of view, tradition, etc.,
Nor by absence of morality that it is attained,
Then according to my reasoning,
It is by observing a doctrine of silence that the Path is attained.
The Buddha replied:
You are depending on wrong views.
I am aware that you are deluded about the Path.
You have not seen the deceptive notion,
Consequently you will be silent.
6. Furthermore, to say: "My doctrine is true (satya), the other doctrines are deceptive (mrsdvdda); my
doctrine is absolute (paramd), the others are wrong (abhutd)": such is the origin of quarrels (vivddamula).
Here the term Evam designates a doctrine free of quarreling: listening to the words of others, it declares:
"This man is not wrong." That is why the Buddhist sutras begin with Evam.
The meaning of Evam has been explained in brief (samdsatah).
MAYA
Let us now speak about the word Maya."
Question. - In the Buddha's doctrine, it is said that all dharmas are empty (sunya) and without a substantial
self (andtmaka)} ^ Why do the Buddhist sutras begin with the words: "Thus have /heard"?
Answer. - 1 . Although the disciples of the Buddha understood the non-existence of self (andtman), they
conform to current usage {samvrtidharma) and speak of a self (dtman). But this atman is not a true atman.
Thus there is nothing ridiculous in exchanging copper coins (tdmrakdrsdpand) for gold coins
{suvarnakdrsdpand). Why? Because the rules of commerce {krayavikrayadharma) demand it. It is the
same when we speak of dtman. In a system [that sets up the thesis of] the anatman, we can talk about the
atman; by conforming to current usage (lokasamvrti), we do not incur any blame. Thus a stanza of the Tien
wen king (Devapariprcchasutra) says:
^ Maya in the ｅxpression evam maya srutam corresponds to me in the Pali phrase evam me •attain. Me is the enclitic
form of the personal pronoun of the first person singular; it replaces the genitive, dative or instrumental singular.
I il l!i i i in In n i in i n the Nil i in i I i [ 1 i [ lha, I 6: .VI >i< l ha, 1, p.
6). explains that me, in the phrase evam me •attain, replaces both the instrumental and the dative: idlia pana maya sittaii ti
ca sutan ti ea attliadvayam yujjati. Continuing his explanation, he comments that me designates the 'me' (atta), the
individual (puggala), the person endowed with auditory consciousness (sotai ii'ii'ianas miangi pie. ■ da)
5 Sarve dhat i atiatmaiialj, in Pali ha itt tttd, i.e., according to the explanation of the Kosavyakln a: na
ta atmasvahliavai tma vid] '• /111 pi.i i i found in Sanryutta, III, p. 133; IV, p.
28, 401; Vinaya, V, p. 86; Sutralamkara, XVIII, 101, p. 158; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 262), k. 10, p. 66bl6, etc.
If he is an arhat bhiksu
Whose impurities have been destroyed,
And who is in his very last existence,
Can he say: It is I?
The Buddha replies:
An arhat bhiksu
Whose impurities have been destroyed
And who is in his very last existence
Can say: It is 1.1"
In current usage (lokadharma), we speak of the atman, but not from the absolute (paramdrtha) , true point
of view, for all dharmas are empty (sunya) and devoid of substantial self (anatmaka). In current usage
there is nothing wrong in speaking of atman.
2. Furthermore, current language (lokabhilapa) has three rools (inula): (1) wrong views (mithyddrsti), (2)
pride (mdna), (3) convention (samketa). The first two are [64b] impure (asubha), the third is pure (subha).
In all worldly people (prthagjana), the three types of language, wrong views, pride and convention, exist.
In the saiksas on the path of seeing (darsanamarga), there are two types of language, that of pride and that
of convention. In the aryas, only the conventional language exists. Without inwardly condemning the true
doctrine (saddharma), they imitate ordinary people and borrow their language. Rejecting the wrong views
of the world (lokamithyasdrsti), they conform to usage (samvrti) and avoid quarrels (vivdda); thus they
reject the other two impure roots of language. By conforming to the world, they use only one kind of
language, i.e., conventional language. The Buddha's disciples who speak about the atman, by conforming
to usage, are not committing a fault.
3. Furthermore, the objection may be made to people who cling (abhinivista) to the doctrine of atman and
who claim that it is true and the rest is false (etucl era scitycnn moluim anyat) in this way: "If, according to
you, all dharmas are truly without substantial self {anatmaka), how can you say: 'Thus have /heard'?" But
here the disciples of the Buddha do not cling to emptiness (siinya) and the non-existence (akimcanya) of all
dharmas. Neither do they cling to the real nature (bhutalaksana) of dharmas, nor a fortiori to the doctrine
of andtman. That is why they cannot be reproached or asked why they speak of self. Thus, in the Tching
louen (Madhyamakasastra), some stanzas^" say:
155 Sutta, entitled Araham, of the Samyutta, I, p. 14; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 581), k 22, p. 154b-c; T 100 (no. 166), k. 9, p.
435c: yo hoti hhikkhu arahaiu.... pi so vadeyya (hi devata). yo lioti hhikkhu katavT....
vohara i i / i in Mi , i
Buddhaghosa interprets this sutta in the same v, ay in the Sarattha, I, p. 51.
156 Of the three stanzas cited here, I [Lamotte] have been able to find only the first in Madhyamakakarika, XIII, 7; Madh.
vrtti, p. 245; the Chinese versions of the Madhyamakasastra: Tchong louen, T 1564, k. 2, p. 18c; Pan jo teng louen che, T
If there were something non-empty,
There should be something empty;
But if the non-empty does not exist,
How would the empty exist?. "
The fool (bald) who sees the non-empty
Then sees the empty as well.
Not having positive views (drsti) or negative views (adrsti)
Is truly 'nirvana'.
Non-duality (advaya), the gates of security (yogaksema), ^°
The destruction of wrong views,
The domain surveyed by the Buddhas,
That is the 'doctrine of anatman'.
The meaning of Maya has been explained in brief (samasatah).
SRUTAM
Let us now speak about the word Srutam."
1566, k. 8, p. 91b. It is possible that the author of the Mpps had at his disposal an augmented edition of the
Madhyamakasastra.
15 ' Madh. vritti, p. 245: See Candrakirti's commentary in the same place and Gronsscl, Philosophies iiulicnucs, i, p. 237.
1^° The Chinese characters Ngan yin (170 and 14) or Ngan wen (115 and 14) rend' i tin mini .vord >gak , na (cl
Ro i I i i i i il u p. 1 39). In Tibetan it is alwa translated ) pci f< li >i h [ in
According to Buddhaghosa (Sarattha, I, p. 255; II, p. 164) yoga i \ ituhi hi i ill l ol n free
from the four yogas ikama-, bhava-, ditthi- and avijjayoga), a synonym for nibbana or sainthood (arahatta). This
i pn ion In hi. 'li id; < urred n tin eda i fr< qucnt in Buddhist texts. See references in Rhys Davids-Stedc,
s.v., and Samgraha, notes and references, p. 4). The translators render il as 'security' (Levi), 'safety (C. Rhys Davids),
'innere Frieden' (Weller). See R.B.A. Ray, Yogaksema, BSOS, VII, 1934, p. 133-136 and H. lacobi, Trimsikdvijnapti des
Vasubandhu, Stuttgart, 1932, p. 54.
!'" In his commentaries on the Nikayas (Siimahgala. I, p. 28: Papahca. 1. p. 4-5: Sarattha, 1. p. 6: Vlanoratha, I, p. 7),
Buddhaghosa enumerates all the possible meanings of sutam; but, he adds, in the ｅxpression evam me sutaiii. sutain
designates a perception relating io the auricular orifice (sotadraraiiusareua upadharauain)..., il indicates the perception
( il i H it\ I li indi kin ili cca) mcl vti h ion II iln.i i / lie perceived objccl
(visaya). According to him, the phrase evam me sutam means: By me, an individual endowed with auditory
Question. - What does the word srutam signify? Does it mean by means of the ear-organ (srotrendriya), or
by means of the auditory consciousness (srotravijndna), or by means of the mental consciousness
(manovijnana)!^" if ^ is the ear-organ that hears, [the objection will be made] that, being without
intellect (avabodha), the ear-organ cannot hear. - If it is the auditory consciousness that hears, [the
objection will be made] that, lasting but a moment (ekaksanika ), the auditory consciousness is incapable of
concept (vikalpa) and cannot hear.l°l - If it is the mental consciousness that hears, [the objection will be
made] that the mental consciousness, in turn, cannot hear. Why? The first five consciousnesses [visual,
auditory, olfactory, gustatory and tactile consciousnesses] recognize the five gross (sthula) objects, [i.e.,
color, sound, odor, taste and tangible]; it is only afterwards that the mental consciousness recognizes
(yijdndti).^ The mental consciousness is unable to cognize the five gross objects actually present
(pratyutpanna); it cognizes only those that are past (atita) or future (andgata)}^ If the mental
consciousness could cognize the five gross objects actually present, blind people (andha) and deaf people
(badhira) could cognize colors (rupa) and sounds (sabda). Why? Because their mental consciousness is
not destroyed.
Answer. - Neither the ear-organ (srotrendriya), nor the auditory consciousness (srotravijndna), nor the
mental consciousness (manovijndnd) are able to hear sounds. The coming together of many causes and
conditions (hetuprayayasamnipdta) is necessary to be able to hear sounds. It cannot be said that one single
consciousness, this was heard by virtue of a consciousness commonly called auditory activity (mayd savanakicca
\ innanasainangina pugga ten a i -in nana \ -ascna latldhasa \ ■anakiccaroharena sutani ) .
160 In order to understand the discussion that follows, it is necessary to recall the division of the elements into eighteen
dluitua: i ) the six organs (indriya): eye, ear, nose, tongue, touch, mind;
2) the six objects (visaya): color, sound, odor, taste, tangible, non perceptible object (dhanna):
3) the six conscioi
il )<ti 1 1 11 1 Uilllol j
olfactory, gustatory, tactile a
division is found in
ill iIm in inn lis, ( licrbatsk) caption, p. 97:
Six indriyas
Six visayas
Six vijndnas
i . cuksus
7. rupa
13. caksurvijnana
2. srotra
8. sahda
14. srotravijndna
3,ghrdna
9. irandha
15. ghrdnavijndna
A.jihvd
10. rasa
16. jihvdvijndna
5. My a
1 1 . sprastavya
17. kdyavijndna
6. manas
12. dharma
18. manovijndna
J" 1 According to the \ libha ika . Mi Bi I B vijfianas - therefore, the auditory i
wahliavavikalpa (vikalpa b\ definition, lo n mil th nil i tin i
lor tin ilpa msistii if memory ( lai i): that i liy it i id that they ai ill i mi / /, just as it i lid
about a horse that has only one foot that it has no feet. Kosa, I, p. 60-61.
162 jjjg men t a i consciousness (iiianovijnana) always follows the manas which serves it as support (dsraya) and organ
(indriya). This manas is that one of the six consciousnesses (vijndna) that has just gone past (,v< n it
vijnanain yad dlii tan inanah, ICosa, 1, p. 3 1 ). This is the canonical doctrine formulal d b\ Mm 3ai ti idin-\ iM h i!
For other theories, sec Samgraha, Notes and References, p. 5F.
Ioj According to Kosa, I, p. 44, 94, the object of the first five consciousnesses is simultaneous v, ith them, the object of
the sixth consciousness is earlier, or simultaneous, or later than it; in other words, it is past, present or future.
dharma hears sounds. Why? The ear-organ, lacking intellect (avabodha), cannot hear sounds; the [64c]
consciousnesses, both auditory consciousness as well as mental [consciousness], being non-material
(arupiri), offering no resistance (apratigha) and outside of space (adesasthd)}^ are not able to hear
sounds. Sound (sabdd) itself, lacking intellect (avabodha) and lacking the organ (indriya), cannot hear
sounds. But if the ear-organ (srotrendriyd) is intact, when the sound reaches the auditory field and when
the manas wants to hear, the coming together of the object [i.e., sound] and the manas
(sthulamanahsamnipata) determines the arising of an auditory consciousness (srotravijndnd).-'
Following this auditory consciousness, there arises a mental consciousness (manovijndnd) that can analyze
(vikalpana) all types of causes and conditions (hetupratyaya) and succeeds in hearing sounds. "" This is
why the objection cannot be made: "Who hears sound?" In the Buddha's doctrine no dharma is agent
(ktlraka), pcrccivcr (clrastri) or cognizcr (Jiidnin). Some stanzas say:
If there is an action (karman), there are also fruits (phala).
The non-existence of the agent (karaka), of the action and of the fruit
Is the absolute (paramd) and profound (gamhluru) law
That the Buddha was able to discover. 1" '
There is emptiness (sunya) but not annihilation (uccheda),
Continuity (prabandhaj, but not eternity (sasvata),*""
Sin (apatti) and merit (punya), and not destruction (vipranasa):
"By virtue of the ear an
(sotanca paticca sadde a
on the problem of contac
!" 4 The vijnana 1 rydsraya, Kosa, III, p. 135. It is in contrast to the organs and objec
111 i on it h ', ndli Ivosa, I, p. 27.
165 with some modifications, this is the canonical theory on the origin of the c<
sound, the auditory consciousness is produced; the coming together of the three is
i i. II, p. 72; IV, p. 68, 8
(sparsa), see Kosa, III, p. 95-101.
'■"" Equipped with the vikalpas of examinati in I i / , id) and m in try (an i nd), the mental consciousness, by
itself, has a clear notion | i ijn, I oi the object. The other consciousnesses have only a very vague notion. The visual
;s cognizes blue (nilam wnati) but does not know "It is blue" (no tu nilam id). In the same way, the auditory
s insufficient to identity a sound; it must be complemented by a mental consciousness. See Kosa, I, p. 28,
n. 1, on this subject.
16 ' This stanza is quite in the Madhyamaka spirit. Cf. Madh, vrtti, p. 328-329: na pratyayusuniut-puiiiHini
n as, i thitam kuta eva bhavisyati. "Since action is neither produced by virtue of conditions nor non-produced
for the same reason, the agent itself does not exist either. - If the action does not exist, how would the agenl and the i'ruii
of the action exist? there not being any fruit, how would the enjoycrofthe fruit exist?"
'"" The vi if el mii\ n I ii-nlul lion (sit it, kulrsti) aie two extreme views (antadvayd) to be avoided
carefully. Cf. Samyutta, II, p. 17; III, p. 135; Madh. vrtti, p. 269; Madh. avatara, p. 22: Mahavastu, III, p. 448; P. Vaidya,
Etudes sur Ana, Paris, 19 p. 3 Dull I uiyaiia, p. 4< k La ladhyamaka, p. 10.
Such is the law which the Buddha preaches.
The meaning of Srutam has been explained in brief (samdsatah).
EKASMIN
Let us now speak about Ekasmin.
Question. - In the Buddhist doctrine, the dharmas, number (samkhya), time (kala), etc., do not exist,
because they are not included (samgrhita) in the lisl oi .< gi gal (skandha) bases of consciousness
(ayatand) and elements (dhdtu) [set up by Buddhists]. " Then why is it said: 'at time' (ekasmin samaye)!
Answer. - According to current usage (lokasamvrti), there is 'a' time. It is not wrong [to express oneself in
that way]. If a piece of carved wood represents the image of a deity (devapratima) and by thinking of this
deity, one pays homage to it (vandand), that is not wrong. J '" In the same way, when we speak of 'a' time,
it is not wrong; even though this time does not really exist, it is in conformity with usage (samvrti) that we
speak of 'a' time.
Question. - It is impossible that there is not 'a time'. 1. The Buddha himself said: "When 'a' man appears in
the world, many men obtain joy. Who is this man? It is the Buddha Bhagavat.l ' * Furthermore, the Buddha
spoke this stanza:
[65a]My conduct (carya) has no master (acclrya).
My resolve (chanda) is one and peerless.
By observing a single practice, I have become Buddha.
By myself (s vatah), I have penetrated the noble Path (dryamarga).^
In the same way, the Buddha spoke about one-ness in many places. Therefore it must exist.
1& " The lists of five skandhas, \\\ elve ayatanas and eighteen dhdtus.
!'° The cult of images is authorized by virtue of the same principles in Asokavadana (Przyluski, Asoka, p. 361-362),
Sutralamkara (tr. Huber, p. 272) and Divyavadana, p. 363.
1 ' 1 Text cited above, n.
'*■ Stanza pronounced by the Buddha when he met with i he ajivika Upaka (or Upaga, Upagana).
in is I | ii I i ii|jmii I, p. 171 i ii
.Ylahavastu, 111, p. 326: na me acaryo asti lambodhim uttamam.
nskrit Ud ' I 1 ' ' ' ' ' '
Lalitavistara, p. 405: acaryo na in me kasc ii .... sitihhuto nirasravah.
Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 14, p. 618c8-9: "I have no master; there is no-one like me. Alone I am the flawless Buddha.
Having reached cool the nature, I am free of corruptions,"
Wou fen liu, T 1421, K. 13, p. 104a: " My conduct has no master: by m\ se! f. i have penetrated the noble Path." - Sseu fen
liu, T 1428, k. 32, p. 787c: " By myself, I have attained awareness. From whom should I have learned it? I have had no
teacher ." - Ken pen chouc.p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 6, p. 127a: " I do not derive my activity from any master. No-one is
my equal... By myself I have found aw areness; I do not depend on a teacher."
2. Furthermore, it is by association (samyoga) with the dharma 'one-ness' that a substance (dravya) is said
to be 'one'. If the dharma 'one-ness' did not truly exist, why does a single substance invoke the notion of
one-ness, unity, and not of duality or three-ness? Why do two substances evoke the notion of duality and
not of one-ness or of three-ness? Why do three substances evoke the notion of three-ness and not of duality
or of one-ness? If numbers really did not exist, a single substance would be able to evoke the notion of
two-ness, two substances would be able to evoke the notion of one-ness, and similarly for three, four, five,
six, etc. That is why we know with certainty that a substance 'one' possesses the dharma 'one-ness' and that,
by association {samyoga) with this dharma, this substance 'one' engenders the notion of one-ness.
Answer. - There is a fault both in the case that one-ness is identical (eka) with substance (dravya) and in
the case that one-ness is different (anya ) from substance.
Question. - If [one-ness and substance] are the same, what is the fault?
Answer. - 1. If a vase (ghata) is synonymous with one-ness, in the way that Yin t'i li (Indra) is synonymous
with Che kia (Sakra), then wherever there is one-ness, there must be a vase, as everywhere where there is
Indra, there must be Sakra. Henceforth all substances, cloth (pata), etc., will be vase and one-ness. Since
the vase is one-ness, wherever there is one-ness, there must be vase, and not only vase, but also cloth, etc.,
because all of them being 'single' substance, they are not different (visesa).
2. Furthermore, one-ness being a number-dharma (samkhyddharma) , the vase also must be a number. Since
the nature of the vase (ghatasvabhdva) involves five attributes (dharma), one-ness also will involve five
attributes. Since the vase is material (rupin) and offers resistance (sapratigha), one-ness also will be
material and resistant. [However], wherever there is one-ness, there is no question of the vase. It is not
necessary that the vase be one-ness, since to speak of one-ness is not to include the vase therein and to
speak of the vase is not to include one-ness therein.
3. Finally, if the vase and one-ness were not different, then to speak of one-ness, one would be talking
about the vase, and to speak about the vase, one would be talking about one-ness. This would be confusing.
Question. - If [one-ness and the vase] were identical, those would be the faults. But if they are different,
where is the fault?
Answer. - If one-ness were different from the vase, the vase would be that which is not one-ness [i.e., it
would be multiple, aueka]. If the vase were different from one-ness, one-ness would be everything that is
not the vase. If the vase, united with one-ness, is called 'one', why is one-ness, united with the vase, not
called 'vase'? This is why we cannot say that the vase is different from one-ness.
Question. - It is because it is united with the number 'one' that the vase is 'one'; but one-ness does not make
the vase.
Answer. - Numbers begin with one-ness: one-ness is different from the vase; that is why the vase is not
one-ness. Since one-ness does not exist, plurality does not exist either. Why? Because one-ness precedes
plurality. Thus the difference or the identity [between the vase and one-ness] cannot be established. In both
cases, if we look for a dharma 'oneness', we cannot find it and since we cannot find it, [65b] how could it
be included in the list of aggregates (skandha), elements (dhatu) and bases of consciousness (dyatana)!
only so as to conform with current usage do the disciples of the Buddha speak of one-ness, but their minds
do not truly cling (abhinivisate) to it; they know that the dharma 'number' (samkhyddharma) has a
conventional existence (samketasvabhdvd). This is why, when the Buddhist texts talk about 'a' man (ekah
pudgala), 'a' teacher (eka dcdryah) "a" time {ekah samayah), they do not fall into the error of wrong views
(mithyddrsti).
We have explained in brief the meaning of Ekasmin.
SAMAYE
Let us now speak about Samaye.
Question. - In India, there are two words to designate time, Kia lo (kdla) and San mo ye (samaya). Why
does the Buddha say samaya and not kala?
Answer. - If he said kala, there would be uncertainty.
Question. - For ease of elocution, he ought to have said 'kala', because 'kala' has only two syllables whereas
'samaya' has three and is harder to pronounce.
Answer. - 1. It is in order to avoid wrong views (mithyddrsti) that he said samaya and not kala. Indeed,
some say that all beings in heaven and earth have kala as cause. ^ Thus some stanzas in the Che king
(Kalasutra) say:
Time passes and beings ripen,
Time passes and beings grow,
Time can understand men,
That is why time is cause. '^
The universe is like the wheel of a chariot,
Time revolves like the turning wheel,
Man also is like the chariot wheel:
Sometimes above, sometimes below.
2. Furthermore, some say: "Even if all beings in heaven and on earth and all substances (dravya) are not
created by time, nevertheless time is immutable (avyaya). That is why it truly exists. But as the dharma
'time' is subtle (siiksma), it is invisible (adrsyd) and unknowable (ajneyd). It is by its effects, flowers
(puspa), fruits (phala), etc., that its existence may be known and its characteristics (laksand) may be seen,
1 I li i in Ih I il i iiliii i i idcl i iii i mu i [i III II
!' 4 Interesting variation of a well-known stanza (Bohtlingk, hid. Spriiche, no. 1688; Madh. vrtti, p. 386; Saddarsana, p.
1 1): kalah pacati bhutani.... kalo hi duratikramah.
such as the past year or present year, long ago or recently, slowly or quickly. Although time is not seen, it
is possible to know its existence; for it is by seeing the effect (phala) that one knows the existence of the
cause (hetu). That is why a dharma 'time' exists, and as this dharma 'time' is immutable (avyaya), it is
eternal (nitya)."
Answer. - Present time (pratyutpanna) is like a ball of clay (mrnpinda), past time (atita) like the dust of the
earth (prthivirajas) and future time (undgutu) like die vase (gluita). Since time is eternal (nitya), the past
does not make the future, for according to your texts, time is a single substance (ekadravya). This is why
the past does not make the future or the present, for they are confused with the past. In the past there is no
future. That is why there is no future or present, l'^
Question. - You accept that that the past [is comparable] to the dust of the earth. If there is a past, there
must necessarily be a future. That is why the dharma 'time' must exist necessarily.
Answer. - You have not understood what I have just said. The future is the vase; the past is the dust of the
earth. The future does not make the past, because by [65c] falling into the characteristics (laksana) of the
future, it becomes future and then why would it be called past? That is why the past does not exist.
Question. - Why should time not exist? There must necessarily be a time. The present (pratyutpanna) has
the characteristics (laksana) of the present, the past (atita) has the characteristics of the past, and the future
(andgata) has the characteristics of the future.
Answer. - If the three times each had their own characteristics (svalaksana), they would always be 'present'
and there would be neither past nor future. If the future existed presently, it would not be called 'future' but
indeed 'present'. That is why your thesis (vada) does not hold.
Question. - The past and the future do not function with the nature of the present; the past functions with
the nature of the past and the future with the nature of the future. That is why there is a [different] time for
each nature separately (ekaika dharmalaksana).
Answer. - If the past has 'passed', it loses the nature of the past; if the past has not 'passed', it does not have
the nature of the past. Why? Because its self-nature (svalaksana) is absent. It is the same for the future.
That is why the dharma 'time' is not real. How could it produce the beings of heaven and earth, flowers
(puspa), fruits (phala) and other substances (dravya)! [The Buddhist texts] do not speak about kala but
about samaya in order to dispel wrong views of this kind. We speak metaphorically (prajnapti) about time
with regard to birth (utpdda), the elements (dhatu) and bases of consciousness (ayatana), but there is no
distinct time [existing as a separate substance]. ｅxpressions such as 'region' (desa), 'time' (kala),
'separation' (viyoga), 'union' (samyoga), 'singleness' (ekatva), 'multiplicity' (ndndtva), 'length' (dirghatva),
'smallness' (hrasvatva), etc., come from convention (namasamketa). Fools (hula) cling (uhhinivisante) to
l'-* on the controversy of time in scholastic Buddhism, see bibliography and documents gathered by L. de La Vallee
I'oussin, Documents d'Ahhhlhanna, MCB, V, 1936-37, p. 1-158; S. Schayer, Contributions to the problem of Time in
Indian Philosophy. Cracow. 1938. ■ In the discussion that follows, the Mpps presents some points of contact with the
kdlapanksd of the Madhyamakasastra of Nagarjuna (Vladh. vrtti, p. 382-389).
them and say that these are [66a] real dharmas (sadbhuta). That is why mundane conventional dharmas of
purely nominal existence must be excluded.
Question. - If time does not exist, why is it permissible 'to eat at the proper time' (kdlabhojana) and
forbidden 'to eat at the wrong time' (akalabhojana)?^'® Those are common disciplines (sila)\
Answer. - I have already spoken above about these worldly (laukika) and conventional (samketika)
dharmas: there is a time, but it is not a real dharma. You cannot object to that. Besides, the disciplines
imposed by the Vinaya are true for the world without having the nature of an absolute, real dharma
(paramasatyadhaiinalaksana), for the dtman and the dharmas do not really exist (nop alobhy ante). But in
order to moderate the impatience of the community (samgha), in order to protect the Buddhist doctrine and
ensure its longevity (cirasthiti), in order to regulate the disciples' rituals, the Bhagavats of the triple world
have set up prohibitions (sTla) the subject of which one should not question whether it is true (satya, bhiita)
or conventional (numasamketa), what is associated (samyuktd) or dissociated (viprayukta), what is a
dharma with such and such a characteristic (laksand) or without that characteristic. That is why no
objection can be made there.
Question. - When it is a question of 'food at the improper time' (akalabhojana), or 'medicine at the proper
time' (kalabhaisajya) or 'robes at the proper time' (kalavastra), the word 'kala' is always used. Why not say
'samaya'?
Answer. - Lay people (avaddtavasana) do not understand the ｅxpression in the Vinaya; how then could the
heretics (tirthika) understand it? They would take up wrong views (mithyddrsti). Everybody understands
the ｅxpression 'samaya' in the other texts. Therefore by saying 'samaya', they are prevented from producing
wrong views. 'Samaya' is a contrived word, 'kala' likewise is a metaphorical ｅxpression (prajnapti).
Besides, in the Buddhist texts, the word 'samaya' is often used and rarely the word 'kala'. 1 ' ' Since its use is
rare, no objection can be made.
The meaning of the five words Evam mciycl srutcim ekusmin sanuiyc has thus been explained in brief
( samtlsatah).
1 '" For the restriction of eating at the wrong time (akai /' da hoj in I, i.e., after noon, see Samyutta,V, p. 470;
Majjhima, I, p. 180, 268, 448; Anguttara, I, p. 212; II, p. 209; III, p. 216, 260, etc.
'■'' In his commentaries on the f ' il i i | uman il i I p I;] ipanca, I, 8, Saiattha, I, p. 9-10; Manoratha, I, p. 11),
Buddhaghosa illustrates the use of samaya by main citations from the canonical texts, e.g., Digha, !, p. 205; II, p. 254;
Majjhima, I, p. 438; II, p. 22; Samyutta, I, p. 187; IV, p. 205; Anguttara, I, p. 134; III, p. 246; Vinaya, IV, p. 1 17.
NOTE: The Pali and Sanskrit quotations have been abbreviated, only the beginning and ending phrases being cited.
CHAPTER III: GENERAL EXPLANATION OF EVAM
MAYASRUTA
Now let us explain the ｅxpression Evam mayd srutam ekasmin samaye as a whole (samanyatah), 'Thus
have I heard at one time'. '°
Question - The Buddhas are omniscient (sarvajna); independent and without a teacher (dcdrya), they do
not follow the teaching of others (paradesana), they do not adopt the doctrines of others (paradharma),
they do not use borrowed systems (paramdrgd). They preach the Buddhadharma without having heard it
from another. How can they say: "Thus have I heard {evam mayd Orutam)!"
[66b] Answer - 1 . As you have said, the Buddha is omniscient, independent, without a teacher; he preaches
the Dharma without having heard it from another. But the Buddhist doctrine is not the only utterance that
has come from the mouth of the Buddha (hiiclclluikunihokta); it is also all the truths (satya) and all the good
words {subhdsita) propagated in the world (loka)." Skillful words {nipuna), well spoken (subdsita) come
1 '° Other old commentaries on this phrase have been noted by P. Demieville, Les versions chimoises du Milindapafiha,
BEFEO, XXIV, 1924, p. 52-57.
1 '" The criterion of authenticity varies considerably among Buddhist scholars. The question of its variations has been
posed by L. de La Vallee Poussin, Opinions, p. 138-145; Nirvana, p. 24.
a. The traditional orthodox point of view is that of the pious Asoka in the edict of Bairat (Senart, Piyadasi, II, p. 208;
Hultsch, Asoka, p. 173; Smith, Asoka, p. 172): "All that the Blessed Buddha has said is well said." (e kechi hluimtc
bhagavata Budhena bhasite sarve se subhasite).
As a result, in order to know if a doctrine or a text is the word of the Buddha, the translators of the canon say that ii must
be compared with the collections of Buddhist scriptures w hich alone are authoritatn e.
Ii siilra, dedicated ic four great audi nn i found Dtgha, II, p. 123, and Ahguttara, II, p. 167,
considers as the word of the Buddha any text conforming to the Sutras and the Vinaya: "When a text is proposed on the
authority of the Buddha, a communit) (sa ha), a roup if Elders (tl lot m nidi idual Lldci in . ssary to see if
■ in ■ i ii) is in ih utras {si > i l and appears in th inaya (i an l h it imi I
be a pled bcii tin i id i iIm I uddh 1 1 vato i i n n > n mn i I rejected
for the ｅxpression mahapadesa, see Digha, tr. Rh. D., II, p. 123; tr. Franke, p. 220, n. 4: Aiiguttara, tr. Woodward, II, p.
174; L. de La Vallee Poussin, Mahapadesa, Kalapadesa, HJAS, III, 1038, p. 158-160.
The same phrase, but more elaborate in form, requires that the controversial text must not only be found in the Sutras and
in the Vinaya, but also that it must not contradict She nature of things (or '.he truth). I his modified formula occurs in the
Chinese DTrghagama, Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 3, p. 17c. (cf. T 5, k. 1. p. 167a; T 6, k. 1, p. 182c; T 7, k. 1, p. 195c; Ken pen
chouo... tsa che, T 1451, k. 37, p. 389b-390b). It is quoted in Sutralamkara, ed. Levi, p. 4: "The characteristic mark of (he
word of the Buddha is that is found in the uti ih n ppeai n tin in - nd that it do m onti Ii I ih truth
i ' ; i i i ' / unayati). The same principl
are repeated in I'anjika, p. 431: "That which comes down to us as the word of the Buddha traditionally by succession of
teachers and students, that which occurs in the Sutras, that which appears in (he Vinaya and does no! contradict the truth
{dliannata), that is the word ol h I u IJh iiu! in .i her" (yad gurusi raniparaya ivti Hun
iianyat). - According to Kosa, IX, p. 252, the dharmata which the text cannot contradict is the law of dependent
Hi in ition (pratityasainu I
forth everywhere in the Buddhadharma. Thus the Buddha said in the Vinaya: "What is the Buddhadharma?
The Buddhadharma is that which has been spoken by five kinds of people: 1. that which the Buddha
himself has spoken (buddhabhdsita); 2. that which the disciples of the Buddha have spoken
(smvakabhasita); 3. that which the sages have said (rsibhdsita); 4. that which has been said by the gods
(devabhasita); 5. that which apparitional beings have spoken (upapadukabhasita).°® - Furthermore, in
1 he requirements increase in the Chinese Ekottara, (Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 20, p. 652b. For this surra, the four
authorities (mahdpadeka) in the mailer of authenticity arc the Sutras, the Vinaya, (he Abhidharma and the Precepts (sila).
h. Willi the development of Buddhist literature, the criterion of authority loses its power. More and more it is the intrinsic
value of a text that will decide if it should be accepted or rejected. A surra unknown to the Pali tradition, the Sutra of the
Four Refuges (pratisarana), cited below by the Mpps, k. 9, p. 125a, encourag thi ; ti ttoha i recoui i tothi truth
in himself, not to authority, whatever it may be, even of the Buddha (dhai n ih prati u ujai i n pu ■■■ > ■' I Vh J. lh<
Suttanipata, ill. 3, defines She characteristics that allow recognition of (he "Good Won!" (suhliasita). She irreproachable
word: " It is well said and not badly said i > dubbhasitam); agi ith J t ion and is not
contrary to salvation {dhamman iie-\a bha i i allium ': pleasant and no) i\<\ mi// i isii io
appiyain): (rue and not false (sticctiri neva hhasati mi alikani)."
c. finally, the criterion of authenticity is completely abandoned. To accept a surra, one need no longer be troubled to
know if it was preached by the Buddha in such and such a place to such and such a person; one need only ask whether or
not the doctrines w hich ii contains are useful and profitable. I his is (he triumph of the inner critic o\ cr the outer critic, of
subjectivity over objectivity. The early phrase: "All that the Buddha said is well said" is reversed, and it is generally
proclaimed: "Everything (hat is well said has been said by the Buddha." In the following pages, the Mpps resolutely
defends this point of view with supporting texts. one could add other citations to the ones it brings. The
Vladli) n tea isuti hi J . i i! i mil i , |. I i in 1 iipi an p. 431-432, says: "Every word of the
Buddha may be recognized by four characteristics: it is endowed with usefulness and not hurtfulncss; it agrees with the
Dharma and does not contradict tin: Dharma: it destroys the passions and does not increase them: ii shows (he qualities
and benefits of nirvana and does not show the qualities and benefits of samsara. Whoever teaches or will teach a doctrine
presenting these four characteristics should be regarded as a Buddha by the faithful, sons and daughters of good family.
They should consider him to be theii teacher and listen to his doctrine. Why? Because all that is well said has been said
i \ il" I i ddli ii' / / i ' /
d. When the Greater Vehicle comes to flood the Buddhist literature with its innumerable sutras, the adepts of the Lesser
Vehicle protest: "These texts are not authentic; they are not the words of the Buddha." The scholars of the Greater
Vehicle have only arguments of reasoning to oppose them. They say: "The Mahayana leads to supreme enlightenment:
this is why we know that they are the words of the Buddha." All their argumentation in the end leads back to this single
affirmation 5c< vlahayana imgraha, p 9 5utralaml ira 1, v. 7, p. 3; Siddhi, p. 176-178; Hicn yang chciig kiao louen, T
1602, k. 20, p. 581b; Dutt, Mahayana, p. 68-75.
180 p assa g e taken from the Sarvastivadin Vinaya, Che song liu,T 1435, K. 9, p. 71M-2.. When the Mpps refers to the
Vinaya, it always quotes the Sarvastivadin Vinaya word for word. These two texts, the Sarvastivadin Vinaya and the
Mpps. have both been translated b\ Kumarajiva and are known (o us onl\ as translations by (his author.
The text cited here has its correspondent in all the ith v'ina i if \ ni i \\ i 1 io i i >
dhammupasamhito. - Mahasamghika Vinaya, Mo ho seng k'i liu, T 1425, k. 13, p. 336a21: "The doctrine is cither what
the Buddha has pronounced or else that which he has approved and sanctioned; what the Buddha has approved and
an ii .ni d u In ravaka di ipli and other men who have pronounced it and the Buddha has approved with his
the Che t'i to tao king (Sakradevendrabhisambodhisutra), the Buddha said to Kiao che kia (Kausika)l .
"The truths (satya), good words (subhasita), words that are skillful and well spoken, spread throughout the
world, all constitute my doctrine. "1°2 Finally, it is said in the Tsanfa kie (Buddhastotragatha):
The good words in the world
Are all derived from the Buddhadharma.
These good words are faultless
And are no different from the words of the Buddha.
Although they are found elsewhere
These are good words, faultless.
They are all
Fragments of the Buddhadharma.
Even among heretics
There can be good words.
Thus the insect that gnaws wood
Soon takes on the name [of the wood that it eats].
The doctrine of beginning, middle and end,
sanction." - Dharmagupta Vinaya, Sseu fen liu, T 1428, k. 11, p. 639al6: "The doctrine in padas is what the Buddha has
pronounced, whal the sravakas have expressed, what the rsis have expressed and what the devas have expressed." This
in igc i lid mi' il lib ill. I ih vhiia in isli\ idin Vina i, 1 > n pen chou... p'i nai ye, T 1332, k. 26, p. 771b22: " I he
word 'dharma' means the doctrine that the Buddha and the sravakas have pronounced." - The bodhisattvas appeal in the
definition of the doctrine in "Nandimitra's Relation": In the collections of the holy Dharma, there are texts that have been
pronounced by the Buddha, others by the bodhisattvas, others by the sravakas, others by the rsis, others by the gods,
others b\ the sages; they can inspire fairness and benefit." CI S L< i Le ., , . Irlh : otccteurs de la loi, J A, 1916, p.
20-21.
1°1 Kausika (in Pali, Kosiya) is a rather rare, it is true, epithet of Indra-Sakra. It occurs already in the Rigveda (I, 10) and
Mahabharata (3, 9,9 and 135,20). See Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, p. 62, and W. Hopkins, Epic Mythology, p. 123. - It
occurs in Buddhist texts: Dlgha, II, p. 270; Majjhima, I, p. 200, 202, 315, 403. This epithet, which means 'belonging to
the Kusika family', is a survival from the time when Indra was the god of the Kusika clan, according to Rhys Davids
(Dlgha, tr. II, p. 296).
1°2 i [Lamotte] have not succeeded in identifying this text, but in Ahguttara, IV, p. 163-164, there is a conversation
between Indra and some bhiksus where the latter also affirm thai everything that is well said has been said by the Buddha.
Indra congratulates the monks on their speech: "That is a fine doctrine. Do you know it from your own enlightenmenl or
do you hold it from the Buddha?" The monks reply: "When, at a distance from a large granary, one sees some people who
ire carryin i lin m I i kct in their robes, in their hands, one can easily deduce where thai grain came from; in the
same way, all that is well said, every good word, is the word of the Blessed one." (Yam kim > >
Bhagavato vacanani).
The destruction of specific and general characteristics
Is like the iron that comes out of the gangue.
Who would think
That a forest of eranda^-'
Could contain the goshirsha\°^ sandalwood?
Who would believe that a bad seed
Could contain the wondrous honey fruit?
Then we would believe
That the works of heretics
Themselves contain good words.
Good and true words
All come from the Buddha,
Like the perfume of the sandal wood (candana)
Comes from Mo li chart. ^
Withhold Mo li chart
And there would be no more sandalwood.
Similarly, withhold the Buddha
And there would be no further good words.
2. Furthermore, °" the phrase Evam maya srutam is an ｅxpression used by the disciples of the Buddha
such as A nan (Ananda), etc. Since it partakes of the marks ( laksana ) of the Buddhadharma, it is called
Buddhadharma. Thus the Buddha, at the time of his parinirvana, was at Kiuyi na kie (Kusinagara) between
° i eranda, according to Monier-Willimas: the castor-oil plant, Ricinus communis or Croton polyandron; or Palma
Chrisli.
° gosirsa, according to Monicr- Williams: a kind of sandalwood (brass-colored and very fragrant).
*-°-> Mo hclii i ilso ran ril dl th haractei \4i , (Przyluski ( oncile, p. 207) and Mo lo ye chart (S. Levi,
Yaksa, JA, Jan. -Feb., 1915, p. 41) is most likely Mount Malaya where gosirsa candana is
collected, below, k. 10, p. 132a.
'°° This paragraph gives the ultima verba of the Buddha before his entry into parinirvana. At the request of Aniruddha,
Ananda asks five questions of the dying Buddha who answers with five pieces of advice. I [Lamotte] do not find this
episode in the other stories of the parinirvana where Aniruddha appears only once to learn from Ananda if the Buddha has
entered into nirodhasamapatti. Cf. DIgha, II, p. 156; Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 4, p. 26b28; Pan ni yuan king, T 6, k. 2, p.
188b26; Ta pan nie p'an king, T 7, k. 2, p. 205al0; Ken pen chouo... tsaa che, T 1451, k. 38, p. 309b6.
two Sa lo (sala) trees; lying with his head to the north, the Buddha was about to enter into nirvana. At that
time, Ananda, still under the influence of the afflictions (anunaya), had not yet dispelled or eliminated
passion (rdga). His heart was plunged into a sea of sadness from which he was unable to come out. Then
the sthavira A ni lou teou (Aniruddha) said to Ananda: "You, keeper of the basket of the Buddhist texts,
you ought not to founder in a sea of sadness like an ordinary person (prthagjana). All conditioned dharmas
(samskrtadharma) are transitory in nature (anityalaksana). You should not be sad. Moreover, the Buddha
has entrusted the doctrine to you and now, in your despair, you forget the task which he entrusted to you.
Therefore ask the Buddha the following questions: After the Buddha's parinirvana, what path (mdrga) shall
we follow? Who will be our teacher (dcdrya), our critic and our guide [66c] (chandaka)! What will be our
refuge (uposatha)! What words will we place at the beginning of our Buddhist texts? You should ask the
Buddha about these things to come (andgatavastu)."
When Ananda heard this advice, his sadness decreased a little and he found the strength to think about the
path. He helped the Buddha to lie at the edge of the bed and asked him these questions.
The Buddha said to Ananda: "Henceforth after my departure, you yourself will be your own refuge
(dtmasarana), the Dharma will be your refuge (dharmasarana), and you will have no other refuge
(ananyasarana). How, O bhiksu, will you be your own refuge, how will the Dharma be your refuge, and
how will you have no other refuge? The bhiksu considers his own body {kdyam anupasyati); he always
dedicates to it his full attention {ekucittu), his wisdom (prajiid), his zeal (prciycitnci), his energy (virya) and
he rejects the worldly desires and resulting dissatisfactions (loke 'bhidhyddaurmanasya). In the same way,
he considers the body of another, then his own body and that of another at the same time. The same for the
smrtyupasthdnas of feeling (vedand), mind (citta) and dharmas. Then it can be said that this bhiksu is
himself his own refuge, goes to the Dharma for refuge and has no other refuge. ° ' Henceforth the Kiai t'o
kiai king (Pratimoksasutra) will be your great teacher (mahdedrya). You should carry out bodily activities
(kdyakarman) and vocal actions (vdkkarmari) according to the instructions of the Pratimoksasutra. - After
my Nirvana, your guide (chandaka), O bhiksu, will be the punishment according to the rule of Brahma
(brahmadanda)}°° - If someone is in a state of mind of panic (abhihatacitta), he should be taught the
*° ' The same sermon on the four smrtyupasthanas was already spoken to Ananda at Beluva (Digha, II, p. 100); Tch'ang a
han, T 1, k. 2, p. 15b; Ken pen chou... tsa che, T 1451, k. 30,p. 387b) and at Savatthi (Samyutta, V, p. 163) and to the
bhiksus at Manila (Digha, III, p. 58, 77; Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 6), k. 6, p. 391; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 70, k. 15, p.
(K , j i i i i a iii i ,i i iii i
' i- i i s infli i db >in ! iddha upon i 'i inda "Let Chanda say to the bhiksus whatever he wishes, but let
the bhiksus nol speak to him, nor admonish him, nor advise him." (cf. Digha, II, p. 154; Vinaya, II, p. 290: Cliaimo
hliikkliu yam icccheyya.... na anusasitahho).
The same prohibition in Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 1), k. 4, p. 26a. The punishment is even more severe in the Mahisasaka
Vinaya, Won fen liu, T 1421, k. 39, p. 102a I ill I 1 i ! u i i i him
or to speak to him." - Sec also Sammapadatutha, 11. p. 110! (Burlii nn 11 , li.i i ml ' li I /
tr. chap. LXIX.
Chan t'o kia tcgan yen king (Samthakatyayanasutra); then he will be able to obtain the Path. " - As for
the precious basket of the Dharma (dharmaratnapitaka) compiled during three incalculable periods
(asamkhyeyakalpa), it must begin with the following phrase: "Thus have I heard at one time (evam maya
srutam ekasmin samaye); the Buddha was dwelling in such and such a place, in such and such a country, in
such and such a grove..." Why [this beginning]? Sutras all began with this formula among the Buddhas of
the past (afftabuddha); sutras all will begin with this formula among the [67a] Buddhas of the future
(anagatabuddha); finally, the Buddhas of the present (pratyutpannabuddha), at the moment of their
parinirvana, also teach this formula. Henceforth, after my parinirvana, sutras must also begin with this
formula: Erani maya srutam skasmin samaye.
By that, we know that [the content of the sutra] was taught by the Buddha, but it is not the Buddha who
says: Evam maya srutam. The Buddha, who is omniscient (sarvajna), independent and without a teacher,
cannot say: "Thus have I heard." If the Buddha said: "Thus have I heard", the objection could be made that
the Buddha did not know the thing [before having heard it]. At the request of Ananda, the Buddha has
taught this formula, a formula to be pronounced by his disciples. [Therefore] this ｅxpression Evam maya
srutam is irreproachable.
3. Furthermore, so that the Buddhadharma may remain in the world for a long time, the dyusmar"® Mo ho
kia cho (Mahakasyapa) and other arhats questioned Ananda, asking him: "Where did the Buddha preach
the Dharma for the first time? What dharmas did he preach?" - Ananda answered: "Thus have I heard at
one time (evam maya srutam ekasmin samaye); the Buddha was dwelling in the country of Po lo na
(VaranasT), in the residence of Sienjen (Rsipatana) in Mrgadava); he preached the noble truths on suffering
(duhkharyasatya) to five hundred bhiksus. At the beginning, I understood nothing about the self. But by
!° y In this sutra the Buddha praises the good meditation, without content or object, which prepares the way to nirvana.
H ngratiilati imtlti! ii ma (in Pali indha i iddha 1 i i mi i hguttara p imyutta 11. p.
153) for having no concept whatsoever of what is. And the gods venerate Samtha, saying: "Homage to you, excellent
man, for we have not that on which you meditate!"
We have several versions of this sutra with importanl variants - in Pali, in Anguttara, V. p. 323-326; - in Sanskrit, from a
citation in Bodhisattvabhumi, p. 49-50; - in Chinese, in Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 926), k. 33, p. 235c-236b, and T 100 (no.
151), k. 8, p. 430c-431b; from citations in Yu kiu che ti louen by Asanga, T 1579, k. 36, p. 189b, and by Ta tch'eng
tchang Ichcn louen by Bhavaviveka, T 1578, k. 2, p. 276c (tr. L. de La Vallec Poussin, LeJoyau ileus la main, MCB, II,
1932-33, p. 127).
Here is the Sanskrit text of this sutra which, with the exception of some additions which I [Lamotte] have made in
brackets, corresponds exacth ith the Pali version: /// nitl 'liiksi prthivim n i kini h rt\ Ihyin
Poussin, who several times iias mentioned the importance of this text, comments: "Two schools read confirmation of
their m i ph ical th < in 'In Id ni >i>l tin m im i l ith i Hi >rn\ vlaitrc\ '. ,n ' h .1 ilnnl th i Ik oi
of KatyayanI meditates on ineffable reality, on the dharma called tathata which it discovered some centuries after the
redaction of the sutra and of which old scripture knew nothing. Bhavaviveka says that the son of KLatyayani meditates on
the void, for only voidness exists in the universe; he makes the son of Kaiyayam a precursor of Bhavaviveka... The sutra
teaches nothing other than right meditation." (Lav., Dogme et 1'hilosophie, p. 92: see aiso idem, Madiiyainaka, MCB, II,
1932-33, p. 55).
!"" ayusmat: 'life-possessing', honorific title applied to royal personages and Buddhist monks (Ylonicr-Williams).
pondering correctly (yonisomanasikdra) on the Dharma, I obtained the eye (caksus), knowledge (jndnd),
the ear (srotra) and awakening (buddhi). "*■**■
Similarly, it is said at length in the Tsifa king (Dharmasamgrahasutra?) 1 "^; wh en the Buddha entered into
nirvana, the earth trembled six times, the rivers reversed their courses, a violent wind blew up in a tempest,
black clouds arose on the horizon in the four directions. There was thunder and lightning, hail and rain
came down in floods; here and there stars fell. Lions and other wild beasts began to howl; gods and men
uttered great moans, all wailing: "The Buddha has passed into Nirvana. Alas! the eye of the world
(lokacaksus) is extinguished." At the same time, plants, forests, grasses, trees, flowers and leaves suddenly
split open. Sumeru, king of mountains, trembled from its very base. Waves rose up in the sea, the earth
quaked terribly. Mountains and cliffs crumbled, trees snapped and smoke arose from the four quarters of
the horizon. There was great panic. Ponds and rivers became soiled with mud. The stars appeared in full
daylight. People began to wail, the gods lamented, the goddesses choked with their tears. The saiksas
suffered in silence; the asaiksas told one another that all conditioned dharmas {samskrtadharma) are
transitory (anitya). Thus the gods, manusas, yakshas, raksasas, gandharvas, kimnaras, mahoragas and
nagas all felt great sadness.
The arhats who had crossed the sea of old age ijard), sickness (vyddhi) and death (marana) said to one
another:
We have crossed the river of worldly passions,
1"! In telling this episode of the Council of Rajagrha, the Mpps, according to its custom, follows the Sarvastivadin
Vinaya word for word (Che song liu, T 1435, k. 60, p. 448b; Przyluski, Concile, p. 230).
!" 2 The Tsi 1 i 1 in hi li i'i Vlpp lal is il pall rn in the narrative of the First Council, should be very close to the
Kia ye kie king, T 2027. Przyluski has commented thai the account in the Mpps "is rather similar to the Kia ye kie king.
especially in the verse sections."
The account oFthc Council in the Mpps has been translated by Przyluski in his well-known Le Concile de Rajagrha, ch.
Ill, p. 57-73. I [Lamotte] cannot do better than to reproduce his translation v\ ith a few slight modiFications. In my notes, I
use mainly the other sources gathered by him, of which here is the list with references to the Taisho edition:
1) Among the sutras and commentaries: Kia ye king, T 2027, vol. 49, p.4b-7a. - A yu wang king, T 2043, k. 6, p. 150a-
i 52c7, and A yu wang tchouan, T 2043, k. 3-4, p. 112a-114a25. - Fo pan ni yuan king, T 5, k. 2, p. 175a-175c21 and Fan
ni \ uan king, T 6, k. 2, p. 190c-191a. - Three short extracts from Fen pic kong louen, T 1507; an extract from Ta pei king,
T 380, k. 5, p. 971bl 1; an extract from P'ou sa tch'ou t'ai king, T 384, k. 7, p. 1058a-b.
2) Among the Vinayas: Cullavagga, XI, of the Pali Vinaya, II, p. 284-293, and Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 30, p. 190b-192a. -
Sseu fen liu, T 1428, k, 54, p. 966a-968c, and P'i ni mou louen, T 1463, k. 4, p. 818. - Mo ho seng k'i liu, T 1425, k. 32, p.
490b-493a. - Che song liu, T 1435, k. 60, p. 447a-450a.
Przyluski has purposely set aside the narrative of the council in the Mulu m , ti adin Vinaya. We will have to rely on
the Chinese version of Ken pen chou... tsa che, T 1451, k. 39, p. 402c-407c, the Tibetan version of the Dulwa, XI, p. 651
sq., the English translation by E. Obermillcr of Bu ston, II, p. 73 -91. Wc should not forget the information furnished by
in i mi i in i H \ n ii i ( i I ' iii I 1 ' i / / \1CB, I, 1931-
32, p. 25-30.
A detailed bibliography of earlier w orks on the first Council will be Found in Mahavamsa, tr. Geiger, p. LI-LIV.
We have destroyed old age, sickness and death with disgust.
We have seen that the body is [like] a chest containing four great serpents. "-*
Now let us enter into the nirvana of cessation without residue.
The great arhats everywhere, gave up their bodies at will in the mountains and forests, near rivers and
springs, in the valleys and ravines, and entered into [67b] parinirvana.l"^ other arhats took their departure
into the sky (akdsa) like the king of the swans (hamsaraja). They manifested all kinds of miraculous
powers (rddhibala) so that the multitude of men might obtain pure faith (sraddhdvisuddhi). Then, after
their parinirvana, the devas, from those of the six realms of desire (kdmalokd) up to those of the pure
abodes (suddhdvdsa), seeing that the arhats had all entered into nirvana, had this thought: "The sun of
Buddha has set. The disciples who cultivate all kinds oi" dhydna, samddhi, liberations (vimoksa) and
wisdom, their light, too, is extinguished. Beings suffer all kinds of sickness: desire (rdgci), hatred (dvesd)
and stupidity (moha). Now that these physicians of the Dharma (dharmabhaisajydcdrya) hasten to enter
into nirvana, who then will heal them? Like the lotus (pundanka), the disciples, arisen in the immense
ocean of wisdom, are now withered. The tree of the Dharma {dharmavrksa) has been cut down; the cloud
of Dharma (dharmamegha) has dissipated. The king of elephants (ajapati) of great wisdom has withdrawn,
the offspring of the elephants (gajapota) follow after him. The merchants of the Dharma (dharmavanij)
have gone, from whom can we request the jewel of the Dharma {dharmaratna)! A stanza says:
The Buddha has gone to rest forever: he has entered into Nirvana.
The multitude of those who have destroyed the bonds has likewise departed.
Thus the universe is empty and without knowledge.
The shadows of ignorance thicken, the lamp of knowledge is extinguished.
Then the devas prostrated at the feet of Mahakasyapa and uttered this stanza:
Elder! You have given up desire (raga), anger (dghata) and pride (mdna).
Your body is like a column of red gold (raktasuvarnastambhd).
From head to toe, you are majestic, marvelous, peerless,
The clarity of your eye is pure like the lotus.
Having praised him thus, they said to Mahakasyapa: "O venerable Kasyapa! Do you know, O Sakya, the
ship of the Dharma (dharmanava) is broken. The citadel of the Dharma (clluirmaiuigard) is crumbling. The
1^3 These are the four elements. Cf. Mpps, k. 12, p. 145b, the "Sutra of the Comparison of the Four Venomous Snakes"
and the various versions of the apologue entitled "The Man in the Well" (Chavannes, Contes, p. 83-84; III, p. 257; IV, p.
158, 235-238). J. Ph. Vogel, The Man in the Well, RAA, XI, 1937, p. 109-115.
1"4 The parinirvana of the arhats following the Buddha's death and the anxiety of the gods are also mentioned by the Kia
ye kie king {Concile, p. 3-4), the Legend of Asoka (Concile, p. 27) and the Ken pen chou... tsa che, T 1451, k. 39, p.
o i h h II ii 1 i I il in i in i i n l\ thousand at th ne time as .Ylaudgal i
and eighteen thousand at the same time as the Buddha."
ocean of the Dharma (c/hcirnuic/hclrcl) is drying up. The standard of the Dharma (clarmapataka) is being
turned upside down. The lamp of the Dharma (dharmapradipa) is about to be extinguished. Those who
proclaim the Dharma are about to leave. Those who practice the Path are becoming more and more rare.
The power of the wicked is ever growing. In your great loving-kindness (mahamaitri), it is necessary to
found solidly (avasthdpayati) the Buddhadharma. "1"5
Then the Great Kasyapa, whose mind is like a clear tranquil ocean, replied: "You have spoken truly. It is
truly as you have said. Before long, the universe will be without knowledge (Jnana) and plunged into
shadows." Then Kasyapa the Great, by his silence, accepted their invitation. The devas prostrated at the
feet of Kasyapa the Great; at once they disappeared and returned home.
Then after some time, Kasyapa the Great thought: "What shall I do so that this great doctrine, acquired
with difficulty by the Buddha during three incalculable periods (asamkhyeya kalpd), will remain for a long
time?" Having pondered thus, [he said]: " I know how to ensure a long life for this doctrine: it is necessary
to compile the Sieou ton lou (Sutras), the A p'i fan (Abhidharma) and the P'i ni (Vinaya) and make the
three baskets of the Dharma (dliarmapitakd). In this way, the Buddhadharma will last for a long time and
the people of the ages to come will receive it and practice it. Why is that? From age to age, with painful
effort and out of compassion (anukampa), the Buddha exerted himself to acquire this doctrine and has
proclaimed it to men. We must likewise comply respectfully with the Buddhadharma, spread it and develop
it."
Then, having pronounced these words, Kasyapa the Great went to the top of [67c] Mount Sumeru. He
struck the bronze gandv"® and recited this stanza:
Disciples of the Buddha!
Keep well the memory of the Buddha.
We must recognize the benefits of the Buddha.
Do not enter into nirvana.
The sound of the gandT and the sound of the words of Kasyapa the Great spread throughout the entire
trichiliomegachiliocosm (trisdhasramahdsahdsralokadhdtu) and all heard him. The disciples endowed with
miraculous powers (rddhibala) assembled around Kasyapa the Great who said: "The Buddhadharma is
about to be extinguished. The Buddha, who for three incalculable periods (asamkhyaya kalpd), by difficult
effort and out of compassion {anukampa) for beings, has acquired this Dharma, has entered into
parinirvana. Those of his disciples who know the Dharma (dharmajnd), retain the Dharma (dharmadhara)
i"-* In the Kia ye kie king (Concile, p. 4) and also in the Legend of Asoka (Concile, p. 28), the devas and especially
Sakra anil She four devarajas, invite Kasyapa to gather up the doctrine.
!"" In the legend of Asoka {Concile, p. 28) also, Kasyapa called the assembly together by striking a garidi which
resonated throughout JambudvTpa and the Irichiliocosm. - Other sources, Kia yc king. I chouan tsi sail tsang (Concile, p.
5, 95) simply sa\ thai Kasyapa called together the suniglia. - In the P'ou sa tch'ou i'ai king (Concile, p. 126) Kasyapa sent
his Five hundred arhats to all (he universes of the ten directions to announce the council. They brought back with them, in
Sahaloka, 804,000 individuals.
and recite the Dharma {dharmabhanaka), have all entered nirvana along with the Buddha. Now that the
Dharma is about to be lost, it is necessary to have the greatest compassion (karuna) for beings to come.
Having lost the eye of wisdom (prajnacaksus), they will be stupid and blind. In his great kindness and
great compassion {mahdmaitnkarund), the Buddha has had pity for beings. We should respectfully comply
with the Buddha's doctrine. Let us wait until we have compiled the baskets (pitaka) of the sacred words
and then we will enter into nirvana as we please." *"'
All who had come to the assembly accepted this command and remained. Then Kasyapa the Great chose a
thousand individuals. ° With the exception of Ananda, all were arhats, having acquired the six
superknowledges (abhijna), liberation (yimoksd) complete and without any doubt. All had acquired the
three knowledges (vidyd), mastery of samcldhi (samadhivasita). They could practice the samddhis in a
forward or reverse direction (pratilonulmilomatah). All were without obstacles (avyadhata). They recited
the three baskets {tripitaka) and understood the inner (ddhydtmika) and outer (bdhyay"" sacred scriptures.
They recited and knew fully the eighteen kinds of great sutras of the heretical sects (tirihikdy-^ and all of
them were able to conquer the heterodox (pdsandd) in debate.
Question - Since there were incalculable numbers of such arhats, why were only a thousand chosen and no
more?
Answer - When king P'inp'o so lo (Bimbasara) found the Path, eighty-four thousand dignitaries also found
the Path. Then the king decreed this commnd in the palace: "Let there always be enough rice to offer to a
thousand people. "™I King A cho-che (Ajatasatru) did not break this rule. Thus Kasyapa the Great said to
himself: "If we continue to beg our food endlessly, the heretics (tfrthika) will object to us violently and will
suppress our rules (vidhi). Presently in the city of U\m^ did (Rajay.rha), rice is constantly supplied to a
thousand men.™2 ji^t ; s w here we should dwell in order to recite the baskets of the texts." It was for that
reason that one thousand men were chosen and no more. [68a] Then Kasyapa the Great, accompanied by a
thousand men, went to the city of Rajagrha on the mountain K'i cho kiue (Grdhrakutaparvata). *" He said
ly/ Also in the legend of Asoka (Concile, p. 32) Kasyapa forbids the arhats to enter nirvana before they have compiled
the scriptures.
ly ° The first Council brought together five hundred participants according to most sources, one thousand according to the
vlaha imghika Vina\ (ConciU p 04) md Hinai « mg Si yu ki, tr. Beal, II, p. 161; Walters, Travels, 11, p. 160. The
Mpps is aware of these numbers; here it speaks of one thousand members, but later (p. 69c) of five hundred. Therefore its
account is not homogeneous, as Przyluski has noted.
!"" According to Przyluski, this concerns the canonical and extracanonical scriptures, or else the Buddhist and non-
Buddhist scriptures.
200 For mese eighteen great sutras, see Bukkyo daijiten, p. 941b.
2 "1 This command was given by Bimbasara after his second meeting with the Buddha.
202 Some sources describe the welcome given by Ajatasatru to the Council members. Cf. Legend of Asoka {Concile, p.
38) and Ken pen chou... tsa che, T 1451, k. 39, p. 404a-b.
2-vi The Council was held at Rahagrha, but the sources do not agree on the exact place: the rock-cave Pippalayana (Ken
pen chou... tsa che, T 1451k. 39, p. 404b; Legend of Asoka in Concile, p. 38); Saptaparna cave on the side of mount
VaiMra, Vebhara in Pali (Mahavastu, I, p. 70; Mahavamsa, III, v. 19); the cave of mount Tch'a a ti or Tch'o ti
to king Ajatasatru: "Give us food. Let someone bring us our food each day. We are about to compile the
baskets of the texts here and we will be unable to occupy ourselves with anything else."
In this place, at the time of the summer retreat (varsa), the fifteenth day of the third month, at the time of
the recitation of the precepts (sila), having gathered together the samgha, Kasyapa the Great entered into
samddhi. With his divine eye (divyacaksus), he contemplated to see if, in the present assembly, there was
someone who had not yet completely subdued the afflictions (Mesa) whom it was necessary to expel.
Ananda was the only person who had not completely subdued them. The other 999 had already destroyed
the impurities (ksinasrava); they were pure (visuddha) and stainless (vimala). Kasyapa the Great, coming
out of samddhi, led Ananda by the hand out of the assembly and said to him: "Here in this pure assembly,
they are going to recite the baskets of the texts. Your bonds (bandhana) are not yet suppressed, you must
not stay here."
Then Ananda wept with shame and thought: "For twenty-five years I accompanied the Bhagavat; I served
him; I was at his disposal. 2 " 4 I have never yet suffered such great sorrow. The Buddha was truly
venerable, compassionate and patient." Having had this thought, he said to Kasyapa the Great: "In the long
run, I would have had the strength to find the Path, but in the Buddhadharma, arhats must not serve
anyone, must not be at the disposal of anyone, must not carry out anyone's orders. It is for that reason that I
have kept a trace of bonds (bandhana) and have not completely broken them."
Kasyapa the Great said: "However, you have committed faults (dpattf).®* The Buddha was unwilling that
women should leave home. You insistently begged the Buddha to allow them to practice the Path. For this
reason, the proper law of the Buddha will be exhausted at the end of five hundred years and will diminish.
In this you have committed a duskrta fault."™" Ananda said: "I was sorry for Kiu fan mi (Gautami).
(.Ylahasamghika Vinaya, 4 1425, k. 32, p. 490c; Lcggc. 1'a-hicn, p. 85); a cave situated on the north side of mount Daksina
(Hiuan-tsang in Watters, Travels, II. p. 160); the cave of Nyagrodha (Dulwa in Rockhill, Life, p. 151).
204 when he was fifty years old, after twenty years of ministry, the Buddha attached Ananda to himself as an
»" ,11 cfon ii ptii hi diit\ ' i 'ida had set conditions: never to share the food or clothing of the Buddha,
not to accompany him on his visits among lay people, always to have access to him. See Che tcho king
(Upaslhayakasiitra) in Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 33), k. 8, p. 47 ic -475a. She Vhilasarvastivadin Vinaya (Rockhill. Life, p.
88), and other later works, such as Wen kiu, comm. on Saddharmapundarlka, T 1718, k. 2, p. 18b. - The
upastiiayakasutra docs not have its correspondent in the Pali canon, but reappears in Buddhaghosa's commentaries in a
more elaborate form, where the conditions set by Ananda increase to eight: Manoratha, I, p. 294-296; Comm. on the
Theragatha in Rh. D., Brethren, p. 350-352; Hardy, Manual, p. 234-235.
2"5 in all the accounts of the conn il i pa reproached nanda i 1* t number of faults: two in the case of the Fen pie
kong to louen (Coneile, p. 120-122); four in the Tchouan tsi sail tsang (ibid, p. 97-98); five in the Pali Vinaya (ibid, p.
156-159); six in the Mahlsasaka Vinaya (ibid, p. 148-153), the Sarvastivadin Vinaya (ibid, p.232-234) and the legend of
Asoka (ibid, p. 47-51); seven in the Dharmagupta Vinaya (ibid, p. 182-1 6 tin >i ihi 'ii ; in! i > in i; i (ibid | I '
215), the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya and She Parinirvanasiitra (ibid. p. 83): nine in the ICia kic king (ibid, p. 13-15). - The
Mpps counts six faults bul enumerates only five.
206 The institution of the order of nuns at Ananda's request is related in the Vinaya, II, p. 253 (tr. Rh. D.- Oldenberg, III,
p. 320); Ahguttara, IV, p. 274; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 116), k. 28, p. 605a: K'iu fan mi ki kouo king, T 60; Ta feng pien
Moreover, in the doctrine of the Buddhas of the three times (tryadhvan), there are always four categories
[of disciples]. Why would our Buddha Sakyamuni be the only one not to have them?"
Kasyapa the Great again said: "When the Buddha was about to enter into nirvana, he came to the city of
Kiu yi na kie (Kusinagara). He was suffering from a backache. Four upper robes (uttarasanga) were laid
down one on top of another; he lay down and said to you: 'I need some water.' You did not give him any.
In that you committed a duskrta fault."™' Ananda replied: "At that time, five hundred chariots were
crossing the stream, making the water turbid and impure. This is why I did not take any." Kashyapa the
Great again said: "Exactly, if the water was impure, the Buddha had miraculous power (riddhibala) strong
enough to purify an ocean of impure water. Go and confess your duskrita fault."
Again Kasyapa the Great said: "The Buddha summoned you: a man learned in the practice of the four
bases of miraculous power (rddhibala) could remain in this world for a kalpa or a fraction of a kalpa. You
remained silent without answering. He questioned you three times and you remained silent. If you had
answered him, the Buddha, learned in the practice of the four bases of miraculous power, would [68b]
have remained in this world for a kalpa or a fraction of a kalpa. Because of you, the Buddha has
prematurely entered into nirvana. In that, you have committed a duskrta fault. 20° Ananda said: "Mara
fo pao ngen king, T 156, k. 5, p. 152; Ta ngai tao pi k'ieou ni king, T 1425, k. 30, p. 471a; Sseu feu liu, T 1428, k. 48, p.
922c; Che song liu, T 1435, k. 15; Ken pen chou... tsa che, T 1451, k. 29-30, p. 350b. - This instituting is also narrated in
Sanskrit in She fragments of the Bhiksunikarmavacana published by C. M. Ridding and L. de La Vallce Poussin in BSOS,
I, 1920, p. 124-125.
^ u ' This episode is told in very different ways in the texts:
i ) Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 2), k. 3, p. 19c: Being thirsty , the Buddha asked Ananda three times in succession to go and fill
his bowl at a river. Ananda replied that the water had just been disturbed by the passing of five hundred chariots and
suggested that he go to get watci from the Kakutstha river, then an asura, converted to Buddhism, filled a bowl "with
water purified eighl times" and offered it to the Buddha who accepted it out of compassion for him. - It is this refusal of
the water which is blamed on Ananda in all die narratives of the first Council with she exception of the Pali Cullavagga.
2) Fo pan ni yuan king, T 5, k. 2. p, 168a; Pan ni yuan king, T 6, k. 2, p. 183c; Ken pen chou... tsa che, T 1451, k. 37, p.
391a: At the request of the Buddha, Ananda went directly to draw water from the river Kakutstha. but noticing thai the
water had become disturbed by the passage of 500 chariots, he asked the Buddha to use it only for his ablutions and he
went to quench hi;, thirst in the Ffiranyavatl river which flowed nearby. The Buddha followed this advice.
3) DTgha, II, p. 128-129: Ta pan nie p'an king, T 7, k. 2, p. 197b. The Buddha asked Ananda to go to find some drinkable
water in the nearby brook three times. Ananda twice objected that the water was disturbed and proposed going to find
some in the Kakutstha river. At the third request, he obeyed and noticed to his great astonishment that the water of the
stream had become clear.
In accord with this tradition - probably revised - of the Pali Digha, the Cullavagga, in its story of the first Council, does
not blame Ananda w ith ha\ ing refused w atcr to the Buddha.
It would be interesting io compare these different traditions with the Sanskrit text of the .Ylahaparinirvanasutra recovered
in central Asia. Unfortunately, so far we have only short extracts published by E. Waldschmidt. ticitriigc zur
Textgeschichte des Mahaparinirvanasutra, NGGW, Fachgr. Ill, Band II, Nr. 3, 1939, p. 55-94.
20 ° This reproach is not the same in all the n
clouded my mind. That is why I did not speak. It was not out of maliciousness that I did not answer the
Buddha."
Again Kasyapa the Great said: "You have stepped on the samghdti of the Buddha. In that you have
committed a duskrta fault." Ananda said: "At that time, a great wind arose and there was no-one to help
me. While I was holding the robe, the wind blew and it fell beneath my foot. It is not out of disrespect that
I stepped on the Buddha's robe."
Again Kasyapa the Great said: "You showed the women the mark of cryptorchidy (kosagatavastiguhya) of
the Buddha after he entered into parinirvana. Is that not shameful? In that you have committed a duskrta
fault." Ananda said: "At that time I thought: if the women see the Buddha's mark of cryptorchidy, they will
feel ashamed of their own female body and want to obtain a male body so as to plant the roots of merit
with the view of realizing Buddhahood. This is why I showed the women [his organs]. It is not out of
impudence that I have broken the precepts (sflti)."
Kasyapa the Great said: "You have committed six kinds of duskrta faults. You must confess (pratidesana)
these faults completely in the samgha." Ananda said that he agreed and that he would follow the
instructions of the dyusmat Mahakasyapa and the samgha. Then Ananda fell to his knees, joined his palms
together, uncovered his right shoulder (ekdmsam uttarasangam kuritva), took off his leather sandals and
confessed his six kinds of duskrta faults. Kasyapa the Great took Ananda by the hand out of the samgha
and said to him: "Completely destroy your impurities (asrava) and then you can re-enter. Do not return
until your last bonds (bandhana) arc broken." Having spoken thus, he himself shut the door.™"
Then the arhats deliberated in these terms: "Who can recite the Vinaya- and the Dharmapitaka? The
ayusmat A ni lou teou (Aniruddha) said: "Under Cho lifou (Sariputra), the second Buddha, there was an
excellent disciple called Kiao fan po t'i (Gavampati) [in the Tsin language, ' Ox breath'j^l^ Gentle and
1) The legend of Asoka (Concile, p. 50), the Sarvastivadin Vinaya (p. 233) and the Mpps blame Ananda with having
shown the private parts of the Buddha to women. [For this cryptorchidy, see below, k. 4. p. 90b]. Ananda excuses himself
by saying that he wanted them to desire a male existence.
2) The Mahisasaka Vinaya (p. 135), the Dharmagupta Vinaya (p. 186) and the Pali Vinaya (p. 137) blame Ananda for
ha\ ing allowed the women to be the first to venerate the body of the Buddha, w liich they soiled w ilh their tears. To justify
himself, Ananda offered the late hour as an excuse.
3) In the Kia ye kie king (Concile, p. 15) and the MCila ai a livadin \ ina; i (Rockhill Life, p. 154). these two versions of
the same reproach arc combined. He is blamed for having shown the private parts of the Buddha and for having allowed
the women to be the first to venerate his body.
209 pj-zyiuskj sees m thi s judgment on Ananda "an ancient procedure destined to purify the community by expelling a
scapegoat" (Concile, p. 268).
210 The episode of Gavampati is also narrated by the Kia ye kie king (Concile, p. 6-11), the legend of .Asoka (p. 29-32).
(he Tchouan tsi sail (sang (p. 96-97). Ihc Fen pic kong to loucn (p. I 15 I 16) and the Yluiasarvastivadin Vinaya (Rockhill.
Life, p. 149-150). At the request of Kasyapa, Aniruddha contemplates the world to see if all the arhats have come to the
assembly. He disco\ eis ' i\ nipmnilh< pi oflh !in V yoim bhil u called I'urna oi niprabuddha i entrusted
with inviting him. Learning of (he Buddha's death. Gavampati at once entered into nirvana. He cremated himself and lour
springs, gushing forth from space, watered his asiies and uttered a gatha.
kind, he dwells constantly in closed retreat. He abides in the calmness of the mind (cittasamatha). He
knows the Vinaya- and Dharmapitaka. Now he abides in the heavens of the Che li cha chou yuan
(SirTsavana).^! 1 Let a messenger be sent to ask him to come."
Kasyapa the Great said to a recently ordained bhiksu 2 . "Are you under the orders of the samgha?" The
recently ordained bhiksu answered: "What does the samgha command?" Kasyapa the Great said: "The
samgha requests you to go to the heavens of the Sinsavana, to the dwelling of the arhat Gavampati."
Carried away with joy, the bhiksu received the orders of the samgha. He said to Kasyapa the Great: "When
I have reached the arhat Gavampati, what shall I say to him?" Kasyapa the Great said: "When you arrive
there, you will say to Gavampati: Kasyapa the Great and the other arhats who have destroyed the
impurities {ksindsrava) have all assembled in Yen feou t'i (JambudvTpa). There is great business for the
samgha related to the doctrine. Come quickly."
[68c] The recently ordained bhiksu prostrated himself before the samgha (samgham sirasdbhivandya), and
circumambulated it three times to the right (trihpi-acluksinikrtya). Like the bird with golden wings
(garuda), he took his leave into space. He came to Gavampati, prostrated and said to him: "O venerable
one, gentle and kind, you have few desires (alpeccha), you know how to be content with little
(alpamdtrena samtustah), you are ever in contemplation (satatsamdhita). Kasyapa the Great addresses
himself to you in these words: 'Now there is great business for the samgha related to the doctrine. Hasten to
come down to see the assembly [like] gathered jewels.' "Then Gavampati had some doubts; he said to this
bhiksu: "Does not the samgha have some quarrelsome subject (vivddavastu), that it calls upon me? Are
there not some schisms in the samgha (samghabheddfl Has the Buddha, this sun, been extinguished?" The
bhiksu said: "It is truly as you have said. The great masier (mahdcdryd), the Buddha, has gone into
nirvana." Gavampati said: "How quickly has the Buddha entered into nirvana! The eye of the world
(lokacaksus) is extinguished! My upddhydya Cho li fou (Sariputra), the chief [of the doctrine], who could
turn the wheel of the Dharma like the Buddha, where is he now?" He replied: "He has already entered into
nirvana." Gavampati said: "The great teachers are far away. What resources are left for us? Mo ho mou k'ie
lien (Mahamaudgalyayana), where is he now?" The bhiksu said: "He also has entered into nirvana."
Gavampati said: "The Buddhadharma is going to dissolve. The great men are gone. Beings will mourn." He
asked: What is the dyusmat Ananda doing now?" The bhiksu answered: "Since the Buddha's nirvana, the
dyusmat Ananda weeps with sorrow and despair." Gavampati said: "Ananda's remorse comes from the fact
that he is still in the bondage of passion (anunayabandhana) and [for him] the separation gives rise to
suffering. What has become of Lo heou lo (Rahula)?" He replied: "Having obtained arhathood, Rahula has
neither grief nor sorrow. He contemplates only the nature of impermanence (anityalaksana) of the
dharmas," Gavampati said: "It is difficult to break the afflictions and having broken them, to be without
sadness." Gavampati said: "I have lost the great Teacher free of desires (yitardgd). What is the use of
For this individual, see Vinaya, I, p. 19; DIgha, II, p. 356: Thcragatha, v. 38: Sumahgala, 111, p. 814. Przyluski (Concil
p. 255) identifies him as a god of dryness and of wind.
211 This is the s t / / aivin of the Pali sources, a palace in the world of the Caturmaharajikas. Cf. DIgha, II, p. 356.
212 Purna or Suprabuddha according to other sources.
remaining in Sinsavana? My upadhyaya and the great teachers all have entered nirvana. I can no longer go
down to JambudvTpa. May I remain here in order to enter into parinirvana,"
[69a] Having spoken these words, he entered samddhi and leapt into space. His body emitted light rays
(rasmi) and water and fire. . With his hands he touched the sun and moon and manifested all kinds of
miracles (prdtihdrya). From his mind there emanated flames that consumed his body. From within his body
came water which flowed in four streams as far as Kasyapa the Great. From the water there came a voice
that pronounced this stanza:
Gavampati salutes by bowing his head
To the samgha of venerable ones, the excellent supreme samgha.
Having learned of the Buddha's nirvana, [he said]: "I am leaving in my turn."
Thus, when the great elephant departs, the little one follows him
Then the recently ordained bhiksu, carrying the robe and bowl, returned to the samgha.
At that moment, Ananda reflected [on the nature] of dharmas and sought to exhaust his last impurities
(dsrava). During the night, he sat in dhydna, walked to and fro, and sought the Path (mdrga) anxiously and
zealously. Ananda's wisdom (prajna) was great, but his power of samddhi was weak. That is why he did
not obtain the Path immediately. If his power of concentration had been equal to his wisdom, he would
have quickly obtained [the Path]. Finally, when the night was almost over and he was very tired, he lay
down. Now, on lying down to reach his pillow (bimbohana), just as his head touched it, suddenly he
attained enlightenment. 4 As a bolt of lightning drives away the shadows, he saw the Path. Then Ananda
entered the diamond-like (vajra) samddhi and crushed the mountain of all the afflictions {Mesa). He
obtained the three knowledges iyidyd), the six superknowledges (abhijnd), complete liberation (vimoksa)
and became an arhat of great power.
Then, during the night, he went to the door of the hall where the samgha was gathered, knocked at the door
and called. Kasyapa the Great asked: "Who is knocking at the door?" He answered: "It is I, Ananda!"
Kasyapa the Great said: "Why have you come?" Ananda replied: "Tonight I have destroyed the impurities
(dsravaksaya)." Kasyapa the Great said: "The door is not open to you. Enter through the key-hole."
Ananda answered: "So be it!" Then, thanks to his miraculous power (rddhibala), he entered by way of the
keyhole. ^ He prostrated at the feet of the monks and confessed [his faults], saying: "O Great Kasyapa!
Do not recriminate!" Kasyapa the great touched his hand to Ananda's head and said: "I did it intentionally
for your own good so that you would find the Path. Do not hold a grudge against me. In this manner, I
21 -' These are twin miracles (yamakapratiharya) which the Buddha accomplished on many occasions (Nidanakatha, p.
77, 88, 193; Mahavastu, III, p. 115; Divyavadana, p. 161, 378) and which the saints often produced ai She time of entering
nirvana (sec below, k. 3, p. 79a, Mahakasyapa's nirvana)
214 Cf. Vinaya, II, p. 286: apattah ca sisam bimbohanam bhumito ca pddd muttd. This strange detail is noted by almost
all the sources: Legend of Asoka {Concile, p. 36): Vlahisasaka Vinaya (p. 140), Dharmagupta Vinaya (p. 175).
Ylahasarnghika Vinaya (p. 208) and Vlulasarvasyivadin \ inaya (Rockhill, Life. p. 156).
21 ' In the Mahasamghika Vinaya {Concile, p. 209). Ananda found the door shut, but did not enter through the keyhole.
have brought you to realize yourself. Thus, when one, with one's hand, paints space, space is not filled. In
the same way, the mind of an arhat who is at the center of all dharmas is not affected. Take you former
place."
At this time, the samgha deliberated in these terms: "Gavampati has entered nirvana. Is there anybody else
who is able to compile the basket of the Dharma (dharmapitaka)! The dyusmat Aniruddha said: "There is
the dyusnmat Ananda. Among the Buddha's disciples, he has always served the Buddha and lived close to
him. He has heard the texts, has been able to remember them, and the Buddha has constantly praised him
and approved of him. This Ananda could compile the texts." Then the dyusmat Mahakasyapa touched
Ananda's head and said to him: "The Buddha entrusted you to keep (dharayati) the basket of the Dharma.
You should be grateful for the blessings of the Buddha. In what place did the Buddha first explain the
Dharma? The great disciples of the Buddha who were able to [69b] to keep the basket of the Dharma have
all entered nirvana. There is only you. Now, in accord with the Buddha's mind and out of compassion for
beings, you must compile the basket of the Buddhadharma." Then, prostrating before the samgha, Ananda
sat down on the lion-seal (simhdsana). Then Kasyapa the Great recited these stanzas:
The Buddha is the holy king of the lions.
Ananda is the son of the Buddha.
Seated on the lion's seat
He contemplates the assembly lacking the Buddha.
Just as the assembly of the venerable ones
Lacking the Buddha, has lost its power (prabhdva),
So in the moonless night
The constellations are without charm.
great sage, speak!
Son of the Buddha, you must explain
In what place the Buddha spoke for the first time.
You must reveal it now.
Then the dyusmat Ananda, with one -pointed mind (ekacitta), joined his palms, turned towards the place of
the Buddha's nirvana and spoke thus:
When the Buddha preached the Dharma for the first time,
1 did not see it.
Thus have I heard by tradition {paramparaya):
The Buddha was living at VaranasT.
For the five bhiksus, the Buddha
Opened the gate of the immortal for the first time.
He preached the sermon of the four truths:
The truths of suffering, its origin its cessation and the path.
Ajnata, Kaundinya,
Were the first to attain the vision of the Path.
A multitude of eighty thousand devas
All penetrated into the course of the Path likewise.
Having heard these words, the thousand arhats rose up into space to the height of seven to lo (tala) trees.
They all said: "Alas! The power of impermanence (anityatabala) is great! In the same way as we saw with
our own eyes the Buddha preaching the Dharma, here now he is speaking and we are listening!" Then they
uttered these stanzas:
We have seen the marks of the Buddha's body,
Like a mountain of fine gold.
These marvelous marks have lost their virtue,
There remains just a name.
That is why it is necessary, by every possible means,
To endeavor to leave the three worlds
By accumulating zealously the roots of good.
Nirvana is the supreme happiness.
Then the dyusmat Aniruddha uttered this stanza:
Alas! The universe is impermanent
Like the moon (reflected in the water) and like the banana tree.
The one whose merits fill the three worlds
Has been destroyed by the wind of impermanence
Then Kasyapa the Great also uttered these stanzas:
The power of impermanence is very great.
Stupid people and wise people, poor and rich,
[69 c] Whether they have or have not found the path,
No-one can escape it.
Neither skillful words nor marvelous jewels
Nor lies nor strenuous protestations [allow one to escape from it].
Like a fire that consumes everything
Such is the law of impermanence.
Kasyapa the Great said to Ananda. *" "From the Tchouanfa louen king ( Dharmacakrapravartanasutra) up
to the Ta pan niep'an (Mahaparinirvanasutra), the collection forms the four A han (Agama): 1. Tseng yi a
han (Ekottaragama), 2. Tchong a han (Madhyamagama), 3. Tch'ang a han (Dfrghagama), 4. Siangying a
him (Samyuktagama). This is what is called the Basket of the Dharma of the Sutras {sutrapitaka). ' '
21 " The end of this chapter tells about the compilation of the Buddhist scriptures. The formation of the canon or canons
has already been the object of many studies, the list of which is in Winiu.ni L ' II. p. 1, n. 1, and in Lav.,
Dogme et philosophic, p. 198. It is important to take the Pali canon down from its pedestal where Rhys Davids and
< Id nl ( I hi i I J ii <i ihi ubject, sec S. Levi, Ohserva i c I IA
Nov.-Dec. 1912, p. 511; Przyluski, Concile, p. 333-365; F. Weller, Die Ueberlie) ,"" < dei dh rei buddhi ti chen
Schrifttums, AM, V, 1928-39, p. 149-182; A.B. Keith, The Home of Pali, BS, XXXI, p. 747.
on the literary activity displayed in the course of the Council, the sources arc not in absolute agreement; the differences
they manifest allow them to be classified perhaps chronologically:
a. The scriptures are divided into two sections: Dharma and Vinaya. - Upali recites the Vinaya and Ananda the surras
(Pali Vinaya and Vlalnsaka Vinaya, in I'rzyluski, Concile, p. 143-147. - The Fathers receive the Agamas from Ananda
and write the rules and precepts (ibid p. 211-216).
b. To the first two pitakas is added a Matrka or catcchcsis. - Ananda recites the Sutrapitaka, Upali the Vinayapitaka,
Kasyapa the Matrka (Legend of Asoka, ibid p. 39-45).
c. The scripture is divided into three pitakas, but their order or their reciters is uncertain.. - Upali recites the Vinaya,
Ananda the surras and the Abhidharma (Sarvastivadin \ inaya, p. 227 1'i I: Dharmagupta Vinaya, p. 187-195; Mpps).
21 ' According to some authors (S. Levi, Les seize Arhat, JA, 1916, p. 31-32; J. Przyluski, Concile, p. 352 sq), the order
in w liich Ihc Agamas are cited was of importance. Here are some lists where Ihc Agamas arc indicated by their initials (D
= DIgha; M = Madhyama; S = Samyukta; E = Ekottara; K = Ksudi aka):
M-D-E-S, in Mahaparinirvanasutra, T 6, k. 2, p. 191a.
S-D-M-E, in Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya,T 1451, k. 39, p. 407b-c.
E-M-D-S, in Mpps and Tchouan tsi san tsang, T 2026, p. 3b. [It should be noted that the Mpps, which counts only four
Agamas, is however aware of the ICsudraka to which it will refer below, k. 5, p. 99b].
S-M-D-E, in Asahga's Yogacaryabhumi,T 1579, k. 85, p. 772c.
D-M-S-E-K, in Pali canon (cf, Atthasalini,p. 25-26; tr, Tin, Expositor, I, p. 31-32; MahTsasaka Vinaya, T1421, k. 30, p.
191a; Mahasamghika Vinaya, T 1425, k. 32, p. 491c.
D-M-E-S-K, in Dharmagupta Vinaya, T 1428, k. 54, p. 968b; the P'i ni mou lourn of the Haimavata school, T 1463, k. 4,
p. 818a; the relation of Nandamitra, in S. Levi, Les seize arhat, p. 20.
The great arhats asked further: "Who can clearly bring together the basket of the Vinaya (vinayapitaka)!"
They all said: "The ayusmat Yeou p'o li (Upali). Of the five hundred arhats, he is foremost of those who
maintain the discipline (vinayadhara). Let us invite him now." Then they invited him with these words:
"Get up and sit on the lion-seat (simhasana) and tell us in what place the Buddha first enunciated the
Vinaya and collected the precepts (sila)." Upali received the orders of the samgha. Seated on the lion-seat,
he said: "Thus have I heard: once the Buddha was at P'i cho li (VaisalT). At that time, Siu t'i na (Sudinna)
son of the householder Kia Ian t'o (Kalanda) conceived a lustful desire for the first time. 1°
(1-3) The Explanations relative to the 250 Piecci i (pain kl\ itu a up ></,' iki I •) in three
sections (varga), (4) the Seven Precepts (saptadharma), (5) the Eight Precepts (astadarma), (6) the Pi
k'icou iii pi in (hhiksiiiiFvinaya), (7) the Tseng yi (Ekottara), (8) the Yeou p'o liwen (Upaliparupriccha), (9)
the Tsa pou (Ksudrakavarga), these 80 sections (varga) form the Basket of the Discipline
(vinayapitaka). '
Again the arhats had this thought: "Who can clearly bring together the basket of the A p'i fan
(Abhidharmapitaka)!" They thought: "Among the five hundred arhats, the ayusmat Ananda is the foremost
of those who explain the sutras. Let us invite him." Then they invited him with these words: "Get up and
E-M-D-S-K, in Fen pic kong 16 king ( Prz> luski, Concile, p. 119).
218 See Sudinna's wrong-doing in Vinaya, III, p. 10-21 (tr. Horner, I, p. 21-38); Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 1, p. 2b; Sseu fen
liu, T 1428, k. 1, p. 569c; Che song liu, T 1433, k. 1, p. la.
21" We have already commented several times that the Mpps, when it cites 'the Vinaya in a vague way', almost always
refers to the Sarvastivadin Vinaya, the Chinese translation of winch, entitled Che song liu, was started in 404 by
1 uii H u i mtim cd 1 I "in raj i (Iranslatoi oi «ii lpp l mcl < nij ii led 1 . im ilal i (cf. Ba hi, 1, p. 177). The
Mpps and the Che song liu both having been translated by ICumarajiva, ii is not surprising that the Mpps, in analyzing the
Vinayapitaka here, purely and simply reproduces the table of contents of the Che song liu. Nevertheless, instead of
calling the chapters of this Vinaya song (parivwta), he calls them pou (varga). To verify the exactness of the information
given here by the Mpps, it is sufficient to compare (hem w ith the main divisions of the Che song liu (T 1435, vol. 23):
Song l-3:Untitlcd but dedicated to the explanation of the 250 precepts p. 1
Song 4: Ts'i fa {saptadharma) p. 148
Song 5: Pa fa (astadharma) p. 206
ong 6 I i mi i ' / aparivarta) p. 257
ong 7 Mi i i ivinaya p I
Song 8: Tseng po li wen fa (Updliparipricchd) p. 346
Song 10: Chan on; (I ' unarta) p. 379
The pou of the Mpps corrspond to these ten son, which ends by saying: "These SO pou form the Basket of the Vinaya."
The number 80 is obviously an error and should be replaced by 10.
But Ihi > rroi i isily < tpl hm d foi < ' no 111 it n in ,u nlv r pa igc ol the Mpps (k. 100, p. 756c), the Vinaya of the
land of Kasmir (ki pin), which rejected the Jatakas and the Avadanas, consists of only 10 chapters (pou = varga), there is
a Vibhasa in 80 chapters, which comments on ii: on the other hand, the Vinaya of the land of Mathura, with its Avadana
md its Jataka onsists of SO chapters. ( I'rzy luski oka.p 14-21 l-'ai i I i-Pitakaoftl , tivii
School, IHQ, vol. V, p. 1-5.
In other sources, the Vina ipital ii oral) edinquil idifFerenl t referenci inPi ylu ki ( oncile, p. 409.
go to sit on the lion-seal {simhdsana). In what place did the Buddha first preach the Abhidharma?" Ananda
received the orders of the samgha. Seated on the lion-seat, he said: "Thus have I heard: once the Buddha
was dwelling in the city of Cho p'o li (Sravasfi). At that time, the Buddha said to the bhiksus: 'Those in
whom the five fears (bhaya), the five sins (dpatti) and the five hatreds iyaird) have not been suppressed
and extinguished experience innumerable evils in this life in their bodies and their minds for this reason
and, in subsequent lives, they fall into the bad destinies (durgatT). Those who do not have the five fears, the
five sins and the five hatreds, for this reason are, in this life, happy in every way in body and mind and, in
subsequent existences, they are reborn in the heavens (svarga) or in a pleasant abode (sukhavihara). What
are the five fears that must be discarded? 1. Murder (prdndtipdta), 2. theft (adattdddna), 3. illicit sexual
relationships (kdmcimithydcdra), 4. falsehood (mrsdvdda), 5. alcoholic drinks (madhyapdna).® All of
this is called the Basket of the Abhidharma (ahliidluirmapitaka).
[70a] When the three baskets of the doctrine were brought together, the devas, asuras, nagas and devis
made offerings of all kinds. They rained down celestial flowers ipuspa), perfumes (gandha), banners
(pataka), parasols (chattra) and heavenly garments (vastra), to pay homage to the doctrine. Then they
recited this stanza:
Out of compassion for the universe
The three baskets of the Dharma hve been collected.
The omniscient one who has the ten strengths (dasabala),
The wisdom of his words is the lamp that destroys ignorance.
Question. - What is the origin of the Pa Men tou ap'i fan (Astagranthabhidharma ; . the Lieoufen ap'i fan
(Satpadabhidharma), and the others? 221
Answer. - 1. When the Buddha was in this world, the doctrine did not meet any opposition. After the
Buddha had departed, when the doctrine was recited for the first time, it was still as it was in the time when
the Buddha was alive. - A hundred years later, king A chou kia (Asoka) brought together a great assembly
of live hundred (panccivcirsapciriscid) and the great masters of the dharma debated. 222 As a result of their
220 ■pjjjg rec itation of the Abhidharmapitaka by Ananda is taken almost textually from the Sarvastivadin Vinaya, Che
song liu.T 1435, k. 60, p.449a (tr. in Przyluski, Concilc, p. 231). According to this source, the Buddha preached the
Abhidharma for the firs! lime in Sravasd. Actually, according to Ahgiittara, Ill, p. 204-205, it was at Sravasti, at Jctavana
in tin ii i !i ,i il lathapindika that th Hi n I ti< . qilaincd tin n < i . . i iji ■ ]i ■ lion hen \iii i i n
verdni... vuccati sugatin ca upapajjati.
With She exception of errors, the same suira. has no correspondent in the Chinese agamas. the Pali Ahgiittara was able to
incorporate into the Nikayas a sermon held by other schools to be part of the Basket of the Abhidharma
221 Przyluski, Concile, p. 72, ti in lal ih i Milium in eight / >n l niiii bhidharma in i i n
Later we will see (he justification for the Sanskrit titles proposal here.
222 An allusion to the second Buddhist Council and to the first doctrinal schism that ended in the formation of two
separate schools, that of (lie Sthavirya and that of the .Vlahasamghika. the Vlpps is strictly dependent upon the Kashmir
tradition represented by:
1) the Mahdvibhdsd, T 1545, k. 99, p.510c-512a.
i i in i i i i I 2031, p. 15a-b (tr. J. Masuda, in Asia Major, II, 1925, p. 14-15): I 2032,
p. 17b-c;T2033,p.20a-b.
3) Paramartha's commentary on the preceding treatise, a commentary extracts of which are incorporated into the San
louen hiuan vi by Ki tsang (T 1852, p. 8b-c} and the Sarin yushi b) • hukan (T 2300, p. 455b-456b) and
translated by P. Demieville, L'origine des sectes bouddhiques, MCB, I, 1931-32, p.30-40.
4) the Siyi ki by Hiuan tsang (T 2087, k. 3, p.886b; tr. Beal, I, p. 150-151; tr. Watters, Travels, I, p. 267-269, which is
inspired directly by the Mahavibhasa.
P. Demieville has summarized this tradition: "It was only in the time of the second Council, held at Pataliputra in the
116th year after the nirvana, in the reign of king Asoka, that the controversies provoked by the hcrcsiarch Ylahadcva
caused a real doctrinal schism thai resulted in the formation of two separate schools, the school of the Elders (Sthavirya)
and the school of the Great Assembly (.Vlahasamghika). Ylahadcva's heresy was twofold: on the one hand, he claimed to
incorporate into the three baskets the sutras of the Greater Vehicle, and on the other hand, he professed five theses tending
to concede to the saints, arhats or srotaapanna, various imperfections such as the faculty of being physically tainted,
doubt, a certain ignorance, etc.... According to the Mahavibhasa. the argument was decided by Asoka in favor of
Mahadeva. Paramartha seems to wish to spare the memory of the pious monarch: according to him, il was the queen,
circumvented by her lover Mahadeva, who had the adversaries of the hcrcsiarch thrown into the Ganges, Bui the latter,
using their magical powers, fled to Kashmir, where the king soon had them sought out. According to the Vibhasa, the}
refused to leave Kashmir (where, later on, according to a tradition which is, however, debatable, (he Vibhasa itself was
composed). According to Paramartha ih - i ccptcd >1 i u itation and letumed to Pataliputra where, Mahadeva
ha\ nig died, the two schools came together for a new Council in order to purify the five famous theses. And it vv as then,
Paramartha (ells us, thai the real schism was produced and the two schools separated.
I'h i i ' ' ; tlia dad i ihyed , > • < > , / , (Bstan-hgyur, VI do hgrcl < 12) tr. in Wallcsi S'c; '
alteii Buddliismus, Heidelberg, 1927, p. 78-93), tells of a twofold tradition: one Council regarding .Ylahadcva's live points
was held at Pataliputra in the 137th year aftci the nirvana, under kings Nanda and Vlahapadma. and ended in the splitting
of the Sthaviras anil the Vlahasamghikas (Wallcscr, p. 81-82). - In the 160th year after the nirvauna, under the reign of
Dharmasoka in Pataliputra. some arguments [on the five points of .Ylahadcva] provoked a schism in the community which
divided the Maha ini in' i md tin Slha ira in id p 78)
The sources noted so far constitute a relatively homogeneous group that I [Lamotte] would like to call the Kashmir
tradition. Deliberately or not, it seems to ignore another group of traditions related to the second Buddhist Council >,v liich
was held at Vaisali in order to condemn ten innovations Ulasa vattliuni) introduced into the disciplinary rule by the monks
of Vaisali. The references gathered by W. Geiger in his introduction to the Mahavamsa, p. LIV-LVI and by L. de La
Vallec Poussin in ERE, IV, p. 179-185, art. Councils, are not sufficient to get an idea of the question. Here is a summary
of the sources:
a. The Council of VaisalT took place in the 100th year after the nirvana, according lo the Pali Vinaya, II, p. 294-307 (tr.
Rh. D.- Oldenberg, III, p. 386-414; Museon, 1905, p. 258-312); Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 30, p. 192a-194b; Mo ho seng k'i
liu, T 1425, k. 33, p. 493a-z (does not give the date); Sseu fen liu, T 1428, k. 54, p. 968c -971c; Samanatpasika (in Vinaya
III, p. 294 sq, and the Chan kien liu p'i p'o cha, T 1462, k. 1, p. 677c); P'i ni mou king,T 1463, k. 4, p. 819b; Fa hien
tchouan, T2085 (tr. Legge, p. 75).
b. The Council of Vaisali look place in the 1 1 0th year after the nirv ana according lo the Che song liu, T 1435, k. 60-61, p.
450a-456b; Ken pen chou... tsa che, T 1451, k. 40, p. 411c-414b, with the Tibetan correspondent in Dulwa, XI, p. 323-
330, of which there is a translation in Bu ston (Obermiller), II, p. 91-96; Taranatha, p. 414: (who proposes different
dates); Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 7, p. 909b (tr. Beal, II, p. 74-75; tr. Watters, Travels, II, p. 73-77).
differences, two distinct sects (nikdya) subsequently developed^-', [each] having a name. - Finally a
Brahmin monk named Kia tcham yen (Katyayana), wise and of keen faculties (tiksnendriya), completely
recited the three Baskets (tripitaka), the inner and outer texts (ddhydtmikabahyasutra) . Wishing to explain
the words of the Buddha, he compiled the Fa tche king pa kien tou (Jnanaprasthanastagrantha).224 j ne
c. According to the Singhalese chronicles, the second Council was held at VaisalT in the 199th year after the nirvana
tinder the reign of Kakisoka (Dipavamsa, 1\ , v. 44, 47: Ylahavamsa, IV, v. 8) and according to the Dipavamsa (V, v. 30-
39), the Vrjiputrakas who had been excommiiiii. il d il i'i ( > in il in i'i n turn held a great a in 1 f ha i
hi n mi ili I id i ii ighika sect. - The Singhalese sources arc also the only ones to note the existence of a third
Council which was held at Pataliputra under the chairmanship of Tissa Moggaliputta in the 236th year of the nirvana
(Dipavamsa,VII, v, 34-59), which was the seventeenth year of Asoka's reign (.Ylahavamsa, V, v. 280). Tissa had
missionaries adopted by the Elders of Kathavatthu (Dipavamsa, VII, v. 41, 56-58; Mahavamsa, V, v. 278) and sent them
everywhere.
If She ICasmirian tradition is compared with the traditions relating to the Council of Yaisali. it is seen that Ii has nothing in
common with the sources enumerated under a. and b., but that it does have points in common with the Singhalese
chronicles:
(1) The Singhalese chronicles give to Tissa Moggaliputta under Asoka the same role that the Sanskrit Sarvastivadin
sources have Upagupta play under the great monarch (cf. Law. Ilistoirc. 11. p. 1 37: I'rzyluski, Asoka, s.v. Upagupta).
(2) The Tissa Ytoggaliputta of the Singhalese chronicles tried to make Asoka believe that the Buddha was vibhajyavadin
(Mahavamsa, V, v. 271; Comm. of the ICathavatthu in Aung, Points of Controversy, p. 7). The Vibhajyavada,
characteristic of the school of the Pali language, is a philosophical position which, by subtle distinction, accepts the
certain past, not of all the past; it is opposed to the Sarvastivada, characteristic of the school of the Sanskrit
ge, which accepi Hi i istence of tin ihn urn n ludin Hi pasl When tin !ai li Ji i in thcii \bhidharm
Ii u i'ii ii ii if th i!n i in (hi h is adversary certain <h vadi 'If d *1 nul il i ana (cf. Lav.,
i wrsc a i et du Pi ' Viji 'diva, EA, I, p. 343). This Maudgalyayana of the Sanskrit sources
may be the Moggaliputta of the Pali sources (cf. Lav., II, p. 138).
(3) The Singhalse chronicles list two councils under two different kings Asoka:
ili i i i ii 1 1 hi i ih i ill i d, in th Dipavamsa the Ylah mgiti of th Vajjiputlaka mder kin I lasol (in th
1 00th year of (he nirvana): /'/') the Council of Pataliputra under king Asoka (in the 236th year of the nirvana). - Apart at
leas! of the ICasmirian tradition, that represented by Paramarlha's commentary on Vasumilra's (realise, also mentions two
councils which took place under the same Asoka, after the 100th year of the nirvana: the council that took place before
the departure of the 500 arhats for Kasmir, and the one that took place after their return to Pataliputra (cf. P. Dcmicv illc,
p. 21).
(4) The five points of Mahadcva expounded in the Kasmir tradition rue discussed in the ICathavatthu, II, 1-6 (ed. Taylor, I,
p. 163-204). Cf. L. de La Vallee Poussin, The Five Points ofMahddeva and the Kathavatthu, JRAS, 1910, p. 313-423).
223 p or me development of the sects, W. Geiger, Mahavamsa, App. B, p. 276-287; R. Kimura, Intro, to the Hist, of Early
Indian Buddhist Schools, Calcutta, 1925; M. Walleser, Die Sekten des alten Buddhismus, Heidelberg, 1927; J. Masuda,
Origin and Dictrines o) Earn Indian Buddhist Schools, Asia Major, II, 1925, p. 1-78; P. Dcmiev iile. L'origine des sectes
bouddhiques d'apres Paramartha, MCB, I, 1931-21, p. 15-64.
^ 4 The traditions relating to Katyayana are confused:
I ih ik It; i ina was one of the great disciples of the Buddha, the foremost of those who explain al length the brief
aphorisms of (he Buddha (Anguttara, 1. | T thain vihln nun) He was
originally from Ujjayini and was the disciple of Avanti (Thcragatha, v. 496-501: Comm. in Rh. I).. Brethren, p. 238-239:
Manoratha, I, p. 204-209).
According to concordanl information, he may have been the author of the Pctakopadcsa: the Gandhavamsa, p. 59,
attributes this work to him. - The Mpps, k. 2, p. 70a20-23 says: "Mahakatyayana, during the lifetime of the Buddha,
explained the words of the Buddha and made a Pi le (Petaka), 'box-collection' in She Ts'in language, which, until today, is
used in southern India." - Paramartha (in P. Demic\ illc, < > g/7/i d s sectes, p. 49-50) says: "In the time when the Buddha
was in the world, Mahakatyayana expounded a sastra to explain (he Agama siitras of the Buddha." (This again concerns
the Pctakopadcsa and the Abhidharmajhanaprasthana).
[The Pctakopadcsa is a well-known work: cf. R. Fuchs, Spit i t I rlii 1 ' ) irdin Ii 12
Hardy, Nettipakarana, p. VIII sq., it dates from the beginning of our era. It is a semi-canonical work: the Singhalese
tradition rejects it among the extra-canonical books; by contrast, the Mpps includes it among the Abhidharmas, and the
Burmese Buddhists include it, along with the Pcttip il m na i'i utta im ilia iin! i'i Vlilindapahha in tin i inonii 'I
collection of the Khudd I mil tya (cf. M. Bod ' ' L mdon, 1909, p. 4 sq.). The Pctakopadcsa is
one of the main sources of Buddhagosa's Visuddhimagga and Upatissa's Vimuktimarga (cf. P.V. Bap it. I'i ///
and Vist dt iiiiagga, Poona, 1937, p. XXV). - According to the evidence of Hclmcr Smith (in Przyluski, Concile, p. 73, n.
6), it is still in use in Ceylon.
b. Katyayayana, author of the Jnanaprasthana. Here also (p. 70al0-12) the Mpps tells us that after the Council of Asoka
(thcrcfoi i Ih] I ii i nil iii the 2()()ll ir after Ih rva it\ , mposcd th '
This date was confirmed by Paramartha (in Dcmicvills, p. 50) who informs us "that in th 200 cai I I . na left Laki
i itapta im loth ounti I I clh mi ll vlah im 'iika school, where he established distinctions related to
the holy teaching of the I ripitaka...: those who accepted his teachings formed a separate school called 'the school that
enunciates distinctions'; these were the disciples of Mahakatyana." Actually. Katyayana was not a Mahasamghika, but a
pui ii mi ului P ii in nl ,i i i n i in i him il i| i in i 'i i inn ! in i ii i'h iin i iiiiini ii hi
Sarvastivadin school which was formed at the beginning of the 3rd century after the nirvana. It was as a Sarvastivadin
that he composed the Jnanaprasthana, but the sources do not agree cither on the place of origin or on the date of this work.
We have just seen that the Mpps locates it after the Council of Asoka, therefore in the 200 years after the nirvana. -
According to the Vibhasa ( T 1545, k. 5. p. 21c), "when the Bhadanta [Katyayana] composed the Jnanaprasthana, he was
living in the East; this is why he cites [T 1544, k. 1, p. 918c] the five rivers known in the East." - According to Hiuan
Isang, 5/17/ ki ( 1 20X7, k. 4. p. 889c), "three hundred years alter the nirvana, the sastra master Katyayana composed the
Jiianaprasthana in Tamasavana", near Cinabhukti on (he right bank ofthc Bias (cf. Walters, I, p. 294-295). - According to
Paramartha in his Life of Vasubandhu (T 2049, p. 189a) it is "in the five hundred years after the nirvana of the Buddha
that Katyayana of the 3ai tsti tdin school went to Kashmir where he gathered 500 arhats and 500 bodhisattvas (o
compile the Abhidharma of his school: the result of this compilation was the Astagrantha, also called Jiianaprasthana/'
The Mpps designates this work as Fa tc/n n\ ienj on. In a pinch, one could take this to mean, as does Przyluski,
"Jiianaprasthana in eight kien (93 ami 9) ton (kiianda)". but Paramartha, in his Life of Vasubandhu (T 2049, p. 189a)
explains thai k'ien (5 and 10) tou is equivalent to k'ie Ian t'a (9 and 5; 140 and 17; 9 and3), i.e., grantha; this is why I
[Lamottc] have restored the till ' / I i tu ill ' n a h the . J / /
the Abhidharma in Light Volumes, is a synonym of the Jiianaprasthana (cf. J. Takakusu, Abhidharma Literature of the
Sarvdstivddins, JPTS, 1905, p. 82, n. 2; Lav. Introduction to the Kosa, p. XXX).
In In ii | ' ih ii i ii il i I timi in h io 'a ii i oi i i H -9/2 i2, 116, 157, 694); it follows from
these citations that the work was in Sanskrit run! was subdivided into skandhakas. - We have two Chinese versions: I. A
p'i t'an kien ton louen (Abhidharmastagrantha), I 1543, translated at Lo yang in 383 by Samghadeva and Tchou fo nien;
first chapter (skandhaka) deals with the supreme worldly dharmas (laukikagradharma).- 1 Subsequently,
his disciples made from it a Pi p'o so (Vibhasa) for people of ages to come who could not completely
understand the Astagrantha (or Jnanaprasthana).^2o
2. Some say: In the Lieou fen a p'i fan (Satpadabhidharma)227 me third part in eight chapters (p'in =
parivarta) is called Fen pie che tch'ou (Lokadhatuprabheda?); this is the third part of the Leou fan king in
six parts; it is the work of Maudgalyayana. ° In the [Abhidharma] in six parts, the first part contains eight
2. A p'i ta mo fa tchc loucn (Abhidhaniiajiianaprasthanasastra), I 1544, translated at Lo yang between 657 and 680 by
Hiuan tsang (cf. Bagchi, I, p. 161; II, p. 489).
225 on the theory ot tin tin adh n m iii< liianaprasthana, cf. Lav., Pdrdyaija cite dans Jnaiianprasthana, Ml, 11,
p. 323-327; Introd. to Kosa, p. XXX.
^"According to some sources, the Vibhasa was compiled in the course of a council held under Kaniska in the monastery
of Kuvana near lalandhara or as the vihara of Kundalavana in Kasmir. Here is a short summary of sources related to this
council:
Chinese sources: Paramartha, Vie de Vasubandhu, T 2049, p. 189a (tr. I. Takakasu, TP, 1910; - Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T
2098, k. 3, p. 886b-887 (tr. Beal, I, p. 151-155; tr. Watters, I., p. 270-278).
Tibetan sources: Bu ston, II, p. 997 (which tells of several different traditions); Taranatha, p. 58-61: ■ Schiclhcr,
Tibetische Lebensbescreibung, p. 3 10.
Works: Kern, Histoire, II, p. 392-394; Manual, p. 121-122; J. Takakusu, IRAS, 1905, p. 415; IPTS, 1905, p. 123; V.
Smith, Early History of India, Oxford, 1908, p. 230; Lav., Histoire, II, p. 326-327.
This confused collection of indecisive traditions has, as its evident intention. She setting up of Kaniska as against Asoka,
and attributing to the Sarvastivadins a council which would somehow serve as a match for the synod of the
Vibhajyavadins presided over by Tissa Moggalaputta. As de La Vallee Poussin has said: "It is likely that Kaniska did not
call a council and thai that there was no council." It is not unreasonable that the Mpps has made no mention of it.
In any case, if a Vibhasa was composed under Kaniska lo serve as commentary for the .liianaprasthana of Katyayana, ii is
certainly different from the Mahavibhasa in 200 rolls which has come down to us in the Chinese translation of Hiuan
tsang (T 1545). The latter, in effect, tells a story of a eunuch (?, is this a misprint in the French Migme Chodron) and
bulls that came, it says, "at one time', under Kaniska (cf. T 1545, k. 1 14, p. 593a).
22 ' The Satpadabhidharma, the title of which is attested in the Kosavyakya, p. 466, is the .liianaprasthana and the six
annexed treatises thai are its continuation (anucara) or 'feet' (cf. Kosa, I, p. 4, n. 4). There is a list of them in Sanskrit in
'Ii. li i y-iikh i [ " will in I ihi i ill in Buston, I. p. 49 and Taranatha, p. 296: i) Prakaranapada by Vasumitra (T 1541
and 1542: ii) Vijiianakaya by Dcvasarman or Dcvakscma |T 1539), Hi) Dharmaskandha by Sariputra according to she
Tibetan sources, of Maud 1 , ma m ordini to tin Chinese sources (T 1537); iv) Prajhapti istra b Viand; ilya; ma (i
1538); v) Dhatukaya by Purna according to the Tibetan sources, of Vasumitra according to the Chinese sources (T 1540);
i i | ill isthi icLOiding to the Tibetan sources, of Sariputra according lo the Chinese sources (T
1536). - Along with the .liianaprasthana, these are the seven treatises of the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma. The best study of
these works is that of J. Takakusu ' Extract of . IPTS, 190 liich i
complemented by de La Vallee Poussin's Introduction to the Kosa, p. XXIX-XLII. - For the comparison with the seven
books of the Pali Abhidharma, refer to Winternitz, Literature, II, p. 165-173; Law, Pali Literature, I, p. 336-342;
\ ii id il i / / I ' i , /.Col mil > I
22 ° This is probably the Dharmaskandha (T 1537) attributed to Maudgalyayana by the Chinese tradition; but in Hiuan
tsang's translation, it consists of twenty -one chapters.
chapters (p'in); four are the work of the bodhisattva P'o siu mi (Vasumitra) and four others the work of the
arhats of Ki pin (Kasmir)229 The other five parts are the work of the Louenyi che (upadesacaryd).
3. Some say: When the Buddha was in this world, Sariputra composed the Abhidharma in order to explain
the words of the Buddha. Later, the T'ou tseu (Vatsiputnya) monks recited [this work]. To this day, this is
what is called the Chou lifou a p'i t'an (Sariputabhidharma).230
22 " This is a question of the Prakaranapada (T1541 and 1542) which actually consists of eight chapters:
I 1 i ulh in il li n i in in i il 1 in i Vyal in ii h 1 1 pi u ul nili ivibha i Uiusa ll li in im rahavil h m
Sahasrapanpricchavibhahga, Nirvcdavibhahga. If the Mpps is to be believed, only the first four would be the work of
Vasumitra.
2 -™ The Chou lifou p'i t'an louen (T 1548) was translated into Chinese at the Cheyang sseu monastery by Dharma\ a: i
in the years 407-408 (Bagchi, I, p. 175).
u n hi i hi l i i i i i li i ii i i i ni a! I p. 23) may have composed it in the very lifetime
of the Buddha: this is whal the Mpps affirms here, probably taking this information from the Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 1, p.
lbl-3: "In all of the disciples of all ot tin. I tha ita thi nil i thai fch re are 1 real ma lets who beai the holy
Dharma: in (he lifetime of the Buddha, She arya Sariputra, and alter his nirvana, the arya ICatyayaniputra (author of She
Jhanaprasthana)." Moreover, wc learn from (he Althasalinr, p. 16 (tr. P.M. Tin, Expositor, I, p. 20-21) how Sariputra was
familiar with the Abhidharma: When the Buddha was preaching the Abhidharma to the Trayastrimsa gods, he went each
day to bathe in Lake Anavatapata, then, during his rest-period, he communicated to Sariputra the contcnl of the sermon he
had just preached. Having thus learned the Abhidharma, Sariputra transmitted it to his five hundred disciples
I tthara.... bhikkhi I. The Pali school itself claims to hold its Abhidhamma from the
Buddha himself but through the intermediary of Sariputra. And this explains the close relationship between the
Saruputrabhidharma and the Pali Abhidhamma, a relationship manifested both in form and in content..
Independent investigations carried on both by L. de La Vallec Poussin (li < > the Kosa, p. LX-LXIIO and by T.
i uiiii (Red i i i i I 1 1922), have shown that tin is not Sarvastiva im ul
expounds a doctrine very close to that of the Pali Abhidhamma (in i irti ilai il ii ibhai'i i i'k! <h l'u la] ihhati)
and maintains the Vibhajyavadin theses expounded in the Vibhasa and the Kosa. To review them, it suffices to compare
(he description of the rupadliatu in (he Sariputrabhidharma j 1 1548. k, 3. p. 543) with Vibhahga, p. 1 and ICosa, I, p. 35;
(he definition of dliaiiiiadliatu (k. 1. p. 535 ) with \ ibhahga, p. 8 ( ) and Kosa, 1. p. 30: the definition of nirodhasatyu (k. 4,
p. 553) with Vibhahga, p. 103.
The Pali school divides its Basket of Abhidhamma into seven books, but (he Haimavata school which is almost confused
with it (cf. W. Geigcr. \ta h im p. 278) adopts another division, (k. 4, p. 553): 1) Distinctions with questions
(Saprasnaka). 2) Distinctions without questions (Aprasnaka), 3) Connection i inigrai I 4) Correspondences
(Samprayukta), 5) Places (Ayatana). Cf. P'i ni mou king, T 1463, k. 4, p. 818a28-29 (tr. Przyluski, Concile, p. 179). This
li ul I omparcd \ ith h In I <\w haptci in riputrabhidharma: I ) l .! tnigi
samprayukta.
The Mpps adds that "later, the Vatsiputnya monks recited the Sariputrabhidharma" and I'aramarlha, probabh on (he basis
of this assertion, will explain that their founder, the achat Vatsyaputra, had had Rahula as his upadhyaya, who himself had
had as upadhyaya Sariputra who had expounded the Abhidharma in nine parts of the Buddha, called the Abhidharma of
ili Charactcristi >l ih Doctrin or D i i nahl I na (el Dcmicvill , I cct >uddhiques,p. 57).
Actually, the Sariputrabhidharma contains no mention of the pudgala which is the doctrine characteristic of the
4. During the lifetime of the Buddha, Mahakatyayana explained the words of the Buddha and composed a
Pi le (petaka), 'box-collection' in the language of the T'sin. It is used even today in southern India.231
As all these works are commentaries on the words of the Buddha, when it is said: "The five precepts
(sila)", [the commentary] says: some are material (rupin), others are non-material (ampin); some are
visible (sanidarsana), others are invisible (anidarhana); some offer resistance (sapratigha), others do not
offer resistance (apratigha); some are impure (sdsarava), others are pure (andsrava); some are conditioned
(samskrta), others are non-conditioned (asamskrta); some are with retribution (vipaka), others are without
retribution; some are good (kusala), others are bad (akusala); some are morally defined (vydkrta), others
are morally non-defined (avyakrtd). All this is what is called the Abhidharma.
Furthermore, there are seven tendencies of defilement (anusaya). 32 anusaya of attachment to pleasure
(kdmardga), anusaya of hostility (pratigha), anusaya of attachment to existence (bhdvardga), anusaya of
pride (mdna), anusaya of ignorance (avidyd), anusaya of wrong view (drsti), anusaya of doubt (vicikitsd
or vimati): these are the seven anusayas. Some are the anusayas of the desire realm (kdmadhdtu), some are
the anusayas of the form realm (if,; <■ ihdi i), othei ire thi inusayas of the formless realm (drupyadhdtu).
Some are abandoned by seeing the truths (satyadarsanaheya), others are abandoned by meditation
(bhdvandheya); some are abandoned by the seeing of suffering (duhkhadarsanaheya), others are
abandoned by seeing the origin [of suffering] (samudayadarsanaheya), others are abandoned by seeing the
cessation [of suffering] (nirodhadarsanaheya); the rest are abandoned [70b] by seeing the Path
(pratipaddarsanaheya). Some are complete anusaya?,, the others are incomplete anusayas.
The ten knowledges (jnanaY 1 are: 1) knowledge of dharma (dharmajnana), 2) subsequent knowledge
(anvayajndna), 3) worldy knowledge (lokasamvrtijndna), 4) knowledge of the mind of another
(paracittajndna), 5) knowledge of suffering (duhkajnana), 6) knowledge of its origin (samudayajndna), 7)
knowledge of its cessation (nirodhajnana), 8) knowledge of the Path (margajnana), 9) knowledge of the
cessation [of the defilements] (ksayajnana), 10) knowledge of no further rebirths (anutpadajnana). These
are the ten knowledges. Some are impure (sdsrava) others are pure (andsrava); some are conditioned
(samskrta), others are unconditioned (asamskrta); some are sdsarava causes, others are andsarava causes.
Some are causes belonging to the desire realm (kdmadhdtu), some are causes belonging to the form realm
(riipadhdtu), some are causes belonging to the formless realm (drupyadhdtu), others are causes belonging
to no realm (anavacara). Some are acquired on the uninterrupted path (dnantaryamdrga), others on the
Vatsipiitnyas and the Sammitlyas. The only book of Abhidharma. that teaches the doctrine of the pudgala is the San mi ti
pou louen, T 1649.
■" * For Mahakatyayana and his Petakopadesa, see above.
232 The same list but with different order in DIgha, III, p. 254; Samyutta, V, p 60; Anguttara, IV, p. 9; Vibhahga, p. 340,
383; Kathavatthu II, p. 405 sq; Kosa, V, p. 3; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 490), k. 18, p. 127a28.
233 p or me tenyVIawas and connected problems: Prakaranapada, T 1541, k. 1, p. 628b-c; T 1542, k. 1, p.693c-694a;
Abhidharmamrtarasasastra, T 1553,k. 2, p. 974 (tr. Hobogirin, Chi, p. 291); Kosa, VII, p. 11; Mahavyutpatti, no. 1234-
1243. - Cf. the Pali sources: DIgha, III, p. 226-227; Samyutta, II, p. 57; Vibhahga, p. 328.
NOTE: The Sanskrit and Pali quotations have been abbreviated, the first and last phrases only being cited.
h of liberation (vimuktimdrga). When the four fruits (phala) are acquired, some are attained, others are
To analyze (vibhajana) all dharmas in this way is what is called Abhidharma.
There are three kinds of Abhidarma. First the main part and the meaning of the Abhidarma; the abbreviated
text consists of 320,000 words. Secondly [the Abhidharma] in six parts; the abbreviated text consists of
320,000 words. Thirdly, the Pitaka: the abbreviated text consists of 320,000 words.
We have explained the general meaning as a whole (samasatah) of the ｅxpression Evam maya srutam
ekasmin samaye.
CHAPTER IV: EXPLANATION OF THE WORD
BHAGAVAT234
Sutra: Bhagavat
Sastra: Now let us explain this word.
BHAGAVAT235
Why is he called P'o k'iep'o (bhagavat)?
1. In the word bhagavat, bhaga means quality (guna) and vat indicates its possession: "the one who
s qualities. " 2 ^ 6
2. Furthermore, bhaga means to analyze (vibhdga) and vat indicates skill (kusala). Skillful in analyzing the
general and specific characteristics (si asamanyalaksana) of the dharmas, he is called Bhagavat. •"'
234 This chapter is devoted to the synonyms of the name of Buddha. The first ten constitute a traditional formula of
praise: bhagarains tathagato 'rhatn samyaksambuddho vidydcaraiuisainpaiiiiah sugato lolaivid anuttarah
> ' vaina ii Ilia hlitigtn i mi I li i| i ilia of which we have the Sanskrit
version (Waldschmidt, Bruchstiicke, p. 47), the Pali version (Samyutta, I, p. 210) and the Chinese version (Tsa a han T 99
(no. 981), k. 35, p. 255b; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 49, p. 615a). This formula is very frcqiicnlh encountered isi the Pali
Nikayas, e.g., DTgha, I, p. 49; III, 237: Majjhima, I, p. 37, 69, 179, 285, 290, 344, 356, 401, 412, 502, 521; II, p. 55, 133,
238; Samyutta, I, p. 219; II, p. 69; III, p. 85; IV, p. 320; V, p. 197, 343, 445; Ahguttara, I, p. 168, 207; II, p. 33, 56, 66,
147; III, p. 2, 10, 31053, 65, 153, 212, 285, 312, 341; IV, p. 3, 5, 109, 225, 270, 284, 288, 324, 406; V, p. 15, 183, 204,
329, 333, 336.
on the other hand, it is much more rare in i'i ( h i i ith I ise the ai tenl ned sutra do not have a
correspondent in the Chinese collections or because the formula is omitted in the parallel sutras of the same collections. It
may be assumed thai the Pali school above all contributed to the success of this formula. However, it is not complete!}
absent in the Chinese Agamas. Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 132), k. 31p. 623a; no. 146, k. 36, p. 656c27; (no. 161), k. 4, p.
685a; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 546), k. 20, p. 141c; (no. 981), k. 35, p. 255b; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 6, p. 574a27; k. 14, p.
615a. - It is also found in later texts, e.g., Lalitavistara, p. 3; Saddharma-pundarlka, p. 17, 65, 67, 151, etc.;
Mahavyutpatti, no. 1 sq.
The early commentators gave etymological explanations of these epithets, imaginary for the most part: see, e.g., the Che
hao king (T 782); Buddhaghosa's explanations in Visuddhimagga, I, p. 198-213 (tr. Nyanatiloka, II, p. 313-340) to be
compared with Upatisya's commentary in Kiai t'o tao louen, T 1648, k. 6, p. 426; KumarajTva's notes in the Tso tcli'an sin
mci king. I 614. k. 2, p. 277a: Harivarman's commentary in his Tch'cng che louen, T 1646, k. 1, p. 242. - Other
references in Hobogirin, Butsu, p. 192.
2-" Compare the explanations of the Mahaniddesa, p. 142; Cullaniddcsa. p. 466: Sumangala, 1, p. 33-34; Visuddhimagga.
I, p. 210-212; Hobogirin, Bagabu, p. 46.
2: *o Visuddhimagga, p. 210: yasnui < i i i^tnd tivuecati.
237 Visuddhimagga, p. 211 w/s//j</ A ' ih >hcdch ti i > Bhagava tivuecati.
3. Furthermore, bhdga means glory (yasas-) and vat indicates its possession. Thus this word means "the
one who possesses glory". No-one else has as much glory as the Buddha. The noble cakravartin kings,
Indra, Brahma, the lokapalas, are inferior to the Buddha. What then could be said of ordinary men
(prthagjana)! Why? The noble cakravartin kings are fettered by bonds (bandhanasamyukta): the Buddha
has broken the bonds. - The noble cakravartin kings are sunk in the mire of birth (jdti), old age (jam),
sickness (vyddhi) and death (marana); the Buddha has transcended them. - The noble cakravartin kings are
enslaved (dasa) by their passions (anunaya); the Buddha has eliminated them. - The noble cakravartin
kings dwell in the womb of the calamities of the human jungle (lokakdntdra); the Buddha has escaped
from it. - The noble cakravartin kings dwell in the shadows of ignorance (avidydndhakdra); the Buddha
lives in the supreme light. - The noble cakravartin kings often reign over the four continents
(caturdvipakay-™ ; the Buddha reigns over countless universes (apramdnalokadhdtu). - The cakravartin
kings have mastery over wealth (pariskdravasitd); the Buddha has mastery over mind (cetovasita). - The
noble cakravartin kings covet heavenly bliss (devasukha); the Buddha covets nothing, having reached the
well-being of the summit of existence (bhavdgrasukha). The cakravartin kings seek their happiness from
others; the Buddha rejoices in his own heart. This is why the Buddha surpasses (abhibhavati) the noble
cakravartin kings. He also surpasses all the other beings, Indra, Brahma, the lokapalas who are [70c] even
inferior to the noble cakravartin kings.
4. Furthermore, bhdga means to crush (bhahga) and vat indicates the ability. The person who can crush
desire (rdgd), hatred (dvesa) and stupidity (moha) is called Bhagavat.^39
Question. - The arhats and pratyekabuddhas are also able to destroy attachment, hatred and stupidity; in
what do they differ from the Buddha?
Answer. - Although the arhats and pratyekabuddhas have destroyed this threefold poison (trivisd), they
have not entirely eliminated the latent predispositions ( vdsand) of poison.^40 ft j s ij^g perfume (gandha) in
a vase (bhdjana); when the perfume is removed, a trace of the odor remains. Or it is like kindling
(indhana): the fire burns, the smoke (dhuma) disappears, but the ash (bhasman) remains, for the strength of
the fire is decreased. on the other hand, in the Buddha, the threefold poison (trivisd) is eliminated without
residue. It is like at the end of a kalpa when the fire burns Mount Meru and the entire earth; these disappear
completely without leaving smoke or charcoal. ^ [See], for example, the traces of hatred (dvesavasana) in
2 3° Actually, only the cakravartin of the golden wheel reigns over lour continents (caturdvipesvara), his life span being
80,000 years (cf. Kosa, III, p. 197)
•" y Visuddhimagga, p. 210-211: yasmdpaiui lohhasosasaiiioha - .... Bhuguvu tcna viddati ti.
111 lin i i ill 1 1 d n d Ihcii lominanl affliction (/ i if iu.< if] i i lation l / uul
(he other habitual patterns resulting from She persistence of She latencies of the defilements (klciavdsaiui). on she other
hand, the Bu din | i esses i i.sainudgha nnplcl liminati n of th latenci He do noli inn n I i ol h
passions over which he has triumphed. C f Aloka. p. 91 5: Bodhisattvabhumi, p. 375; I si louen, T 1605, k. 7, p. 691c; Tsa
tsi louen, T 1606, k. 14, p. 761M5; Sutralarnkara, XXI, v. 54; Samgraha, p. 299-300.
241 Cf. Kosa, III, p. 182-185.
Sariputra, the traces of attachment (rdgavdsana) in Nan t'o (Nanda) and the traces of pride (mana) in Pi
tingk'iap'o ts'o (Pilindavatsa).242
They are like a man in fetters who, as soon as he is released, begins to walk unceasingly.
242 Examples of saints who, having eliminated their dominant affliction, still keep the outer gestures. The Samgraha, p.
300, mentions the case of Maudgalyayana, who had been a monkey for 500 existences and who, having become arhat,
still leaped about like a monkey whenever he heard music. The same text also speaks about a pratyekabuddha who,
ha\ ing been a courtesan for numerous existences, continued lo put on makeup (cf. Chavanncs, Contes, I, p. 393; the story
of the bhiksu who ilirtcd before dying). Sec also the story of the inattentive listeners in the Dhammapadattha, III, p. 360-
362 (tr. Burlingamc, Legends, III, p. 127-129). The Mpps, which will give more examples later (k. 26, p. 251b; k. 27, p.
260c), is contenl io mention here (he case oi Sariputra, of Pilindavatsa and of Nanda. Since it does not develop the latter,
we will summarize it briefly:
Nanda, the hall -brother of the Buddha, was affianced to Janapadakalyani tor married io Sundan), when the Buddha, by a
stratagem, me! him ai Nyagrodharama, near ICapilavastu, and had him forcibly ordained by Ananda. The memory of his
wife continued io haunt Nanda who tried to escape from the monastery. His attempt failed miserably. To cure him of this
love, the Buddha transported him io the Trayastrimsa gods and showed him (he celestial maidens incomparably more
beautiful than Janapadakalyayam; he promised him one of these maidens if he would undertake to remain in the
monastery for the rest of his life. Nanda agreed willingly. The Buddha returned with him to the Jetavana and told the
whole story to the disciples: Nanda was obliged to endure the sarcasm of his colleagues. He succeeded in renouncing his
love ami quickly became arhat. In the course of an earlier lifetime when he had been a donkey, Nanda had been kept
harnessed up by his master, she merchant ICappata, who had promised him a female donkey as reward.
The story of Nanda is one of the best-known of the "Golden Legends" in Buddhism. The artists of Andhra who have
depicted il il la rjunil 'iicla and at Amaravati - probably Nagarjuna's homeland - had a mai 1 dpi i rence for it. - It is
easy to reconstruct ii in its entirety by comparing the different sources where it is recorded in full or in part:
Pali sources: Vinaya, I, p. 82; Udana, III, p. 21-24 (tr. Seidenstiicker, p. 34-38; Nidanakatha, p. 91 (tr. Rh. D., Buddhist
i ' p. I im nil i irajataka in I i i 1 11, p. 92-94: Dhammapadattha, I, p. 96-105 (tr. Burlingamc,
Buddhist Legends, I, p. 217-223); Theragatha, v. 157-158 (tr. Rh. D., Brethren, p. 126-127); Manoratha, I, p. 315-318.
Sanskrit sources: Saundarananda by Asvaghosa, ed. and tr. E. H. Jehnston, Oxford-London, 1928-1932:
Avadanakalpalata, no. X: Sundanmanadavadana, I. p. 308 -35 I.
Chinese sources: Pou yao king, T 186, k. 8, p. 536b-c; Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190, k. 56, p. 911b-914b (tr. Beal,
Romantic Legend, p. 369-378); Tsa pao tsang king, T 203 (no. 96), k. 24, p.739b-740a; Che kia p'ou, T 2040, k. 2, p. 59c-
61b (which repeats the P'ou yao king).
Tokharian sources: Sicg and Socgling, Toehariselie Sprachreste, no. 89-143, p. 51-74.
lconographical: Gandhara: Foucher, Art Greco-bouddhique, I, p. 464-473, fig. 234-238. - Amaravati: Burgess, The
i i i I I 1 5; A. Foucher, Les sculptures d' Amaravati, RAA, V, 1928, p.
22, pi XI, 1; A. K. Coomaraswamy, Rupam, nos. 38-39 (April- July, 1929), p. 73, fig. 5. - Nagarjunikonda: J. Ph. Vogel:
The Man in the Well and some other subjects illustrated at N., RAA, XI, 1937, p. 115-118, pi. XXXIV-XXXV. - Ajanta,
cave XVI.
Nanda was known for his beaut} : he had a golden-colored body, possessed thirty marks of the Greal Man, and his height
was only foui Ii i < i 1 ih >n if it .1 the Buddha. These benefits were the reward for his earlier merits. See below, k. 4,
p. 92a.
At that time^"", the Buddha, having come out of samadhi, set out to walk followed by Lo heou lo
(Rahula). The Buddha asked Rahula: "Why are you so thin (krsa)!" Rahula replied with this stanza:
24 -' This story is drawn from the Sarvastivadin Vinaya, Che song liu, T 1435, k. 61, p. 463c-464a: The Buddha was
il cllin; il ii Mi ', ,i ■ limited liu Buddha mJ Hi >ni"ii i io dm> il this house the next day. The Buddha accepted
by remaining silent. The vaisya, having understood thai the Buddha had accepted, was silent, arose, prostrated at the feet
of the Buddha and returned home. During the night, lie prepared all soils of fond. karly the next morning, he arranged the
seats and sent a messenger to the Buddha to say: "The meal is ready. The Sage knows the time." The samgha with their
robes and begging bowls (patractvaram Maya) entered the home of the vaisya, but the Buddha remained at the
monastery (vihava) to lake his meal. The vaisya, seeing the samgha well seated, proceeded with the ablutions, placed
abundant and excellent morsels before the eiders (stliavira). but lo (he recently ordained monks (iiavahhik.su) and novices
(srainanera) he distributed only rice (sail) cooked for 16 days, a nasty sesame soup (hou ma = tila) and cooked
vegetables. Having given the vaisyas and the samgha abundant and excellent dishes, he proceeded to the [second]
ablutions, look a low seat and sat down in the midst of the samgha to hear the Dharma. When She stliavira Sariputra had
preached the sermon, he arose and went away. At thai time, Rahula was still a novice. Having eaten, he went to the
Buddha, prostrated at his feet and sat down at one side. Buddhas have the custom of asking, after the bhiksus have had
their meal, whether the food was sufficient. And so the Buddha asked Rahula: "Was the samgha's meal sufficient?"
Rahula replied: "For those who had it, it was enough: for the others, it was not enough." The Buddha asked: "Why do you
say that?" Rahula answered: "Before the vaisyas and the elders they placed abundant and excellent morsels, but to the
recently ordained monks and the novices they gave only rice cooked for sixteen days, a nasty sesame soup and boiled
v cgctabics." At that lime, Rahula w as thin and weak. The Buddha, know ing that, asked Rahula: "Why are you so thin and
weak','" Rahula answered, with this stanza:
He who eats oil (taila) gains strength;
He who eats butter (giirta) gains fine color;
H 1 i i csann ind In' ctabh hi in nh i iloi am u n l>
The Buddha, god among gods, ought to know thai.
The Buddha, who knew it, asked Rahula: "In this community, who is the elder?" Rahula replied: "It is the upadhyaya
Sariputra." The Buddha said: "The bhlksu Sariputra does not have the right to eat [better than the others]." When the
ayusmat Sariputra heard that the Buddha had said that he did not have the right to eat, he vomited up his food and went
away. Until the end of his life, he refused every invitation to dine and every gift to the samgha. He accepted only food
thai he begged. The prominent people and (lie vaisyas nevertheless wished It) oiler meals to the community. Wanting to
have Sariputra amongst them, they said to the Buddha: "We would like the Buddha to order Sariputra to accept our
invitations again." The Buddha answered them: "Do not ask thai Sariputra accent your invitations again, Sariputra has a
[stubborn] nature. He keeps what he has accepted and abandons w had he has rejected. Sariputra w ill not go to your house.
The stubborn nature that he has now , he had formerly. Listen: Many generations ago, the king of the realm was bitten by
a poisonous snake. A master who could cure venomous bites performed the chd k'ie lo (cagala) conjuration and forced
the venomous snake \o come: having previously prepared a large fire, he said to the snake: "Do you prefer to enter (he fire
or to swallow your venom?" The poisonous snake thought thus: "Since my saliva is exhausted, w hat use is my life to me?
This is why, in regard to your proposal that 1 take back w hat I have spit out, I will not swallow it back, I prefer to die in
the fire." Having thought thus, ii threw itself into the fire. - The Buddha said to the assembled people: "That snake is now
Sariputra. In his past lives, (his man kepi whai he had accepted and abandoned what he had rejected. Now he does the
Whoever eats oil (taila) gains strength;
Whoever eats butter (ghrta) gains good color;
Whoever eats bad vegetables has neither color nor strength.
The venerable Buddha should know that.
The Buddha asked Rahula: "Who is the Elder (sthavira) in this community?" Rahula replied: "It is the
upddhydya Sariputra. "244 jhe Buddha said: "Sariputra eats impure food (avisudddhdra)." Then Sariputra
who had returned and had heard these words, immediately spit up his food and made the following oath:
"Starting from today. [71a] I will no longer accept any invitations (adhyesana)." Then king Po sseu ni
(Prasenajit) and the ayusmat Siu ta to (Sudatta)"^ went to Sariputra and said: "The Buddha does not
accept invitations without reason. Venerable Sariputra also does not accept invitations. How will we lay
people (avaddtavasana) acquire the great purity of faith (sraddhdvisuddhi)T' Sariputra answered: "My
great teacher, the Buddha, has said that I eat impure food. Henceforth I will accept no further invitations."
Then Prasenajit approached the Buddha and said to him: "The Buddha never accepts any invitations and
neither does Sariputra. How will our minds gain great faith (sraddha)! We would like the Buddha to order
Sariputra to accept invitations again." The Buddha replied: "Decisions are firm with Sariputra. It is not
possible to change them." Then, [to explain Sariputra's stubbornness], the Buddha cited this episode from
one of his previous lives (jdtakaniddna):
once there was a king who was bitten by a poisonous snake (sarpa). As the king was going to die, doctors
were called to cure the poison. The physicians said: "The snake itself must swallow the very last drop [of
poison that it has injected]." Then, with the help of magical formulas (mantra), the doctors brought to the
king the snake that had bitten him and, gathering kindling, they started a fire and ordered the snake to
swallow its poison or else to enter into the fire. The snake said to itself: "How could I swallow the poison
that previously I spit out? I prefer death!" Thinking this, it persisted in its decision and entered into the fire.
This snake was none other than Sariputra: from age to age, his decisions have been firm (dhruva) and
unchangeable (acala)."
The same story occurs in the Wen fen liu, Mahisasaka Vinaya, T 1421, k. 29, but in two separate sections. The complaint
of Rahula to the Buddha is told on p. 179b-c, whereas the apologue of the snake thai threw itself into (he fire is on p.
173c. The latter has been translated in Chavanncs, Comes, 11, p. 349-350.
The Visavantajataka of the Pali collection (Jataka no. 69, I, p. 310) also mentions the apologue of the snake as proof of
Sariputra's stubbornness, but the introduction is quite different: Some people had brought wheat cakes to the monaster)
and when the monks who were assembled there had eaten some, it was proposed to keep the remainder for those who
were absent. And so it was done But a young colle i in ol , Iriputra who came late did not receive his share because
Sariputra had eaten it. In his confu ion iriputi in n >i to < it l\> it '1' i lin l t itthaya p akin I
kliadissami). To give an example of Sariputra's stubbornness, the Buddha then told the story of the snake, the Pali text of
whichfollows li iaranasiyain Brahn to raj jam na i ctlicluti vi a//< i
244 Indeed it was Sariputra who had ordained Rahula (Vinaya, I, p. 82) and had initiated him into the ascetic practices
(Maharahulovadasuita in .Vlajjhima, I, p. 421 sq. and Tseng ti a han, T 123, k. 7, p. 581c).
245 Elsewhere called Anathapindada.
In his turn, the dyusmat Pi ling k'ia p'o ts'o (Pilindavatsa) always suffered from eye disease. To beg his
food, he usually crossed the Ganges river (garigd). Having come to the edge of the river, he snapped his
fingers and said to [the Ganges]: "Vatsala (little slave)! Stop flowing!" Then he crossed the river between
two walls [of water] and went to beg his food. The goddess of the Ganges went to the Buddha and said:
"The disciple of the Buddha, Pilindavatsa, always insults me by saying: 'Vatsala, stop flowing.' The
Buddha said to Pilindavatsa: "Apologize for your fault {deso.no. kdraniya) to the goddess of the Ganges."
Then Pilindavatsa, joining his palms, said to the goddess of the Ganges: "Vatsala, little slave, don't be
angry. I confess my fault." Then the great assembly made fun of him: "Why do you still insult her [by
calling her Vatsala] when you are confessing your fault?" The Buddha said to the goddess of the Ganges:
"Do you see this Pilindavatsa who, with his palms joined, confesses his fault to you? He apologizes and it
is not out of malice (avamana) that he calls you this. Know that it is not his fault. For five hundred years,
this man has always taken birth in a brahmin family; always haughty, he has reviled other men. He has
retained the language he formerly used, but his heart is free of scorn. "246
Thus, although they have destroyed the fetters (samyojana), the arhats still keep the traces (ydsana). But
the Buddha Bhagavats, whether their arms are slashed with a knife or whether they are anointed with
sandalwood oil (candana), do not blink an eye and their heart is as free of hatred (dvesa) as it is of love
(anunaya), for they [71b] have definitively effaced all traces of [the passions].
The brahmani Tchan tcho (Cinca) with her wooden disc slandered the Buddha and in the midst of the great
assembly (mahdsamgha) said to him: "You have made me pregnant. Why do you pitilessly refuse me
clothing (vastra) and food (ahara)?" She did this shamelessly (lajjd) to deceive the others. The five
hundred brahmin masters at once raised their hands and shouted: "That is true, we know this affair." The
Buddha did not change color at this event and did not redden with shame. When this trick was discovered,
the earth trembled and the devas honored the Buddha by overwhelming him with praise and with flowers.
But when the devas glorified the Buddha's qualities, he did not take on the appearance of joy. 4 ' When the
246 p ro bable source: Mo ho scng k'i liu, T 1425, k. 30, p. 467c. - In the Pali sources, it is the monks, his colleagues.
whom Pilindavatsa addresses as slaves (rasala). Cf. Udana, III, 6, p. 28-29 (tr. Seidenstucker, p. 43); Dhammapadattha,
IV, p. 181-182 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, III, p. 300-301); Manoratha, I, p. 276-278. Here is the story in the Udana: evam
me swam, ekani samarani Niagara Rajagalie.... hrahmaiio so samaiio hliikkliu 'ti.
247 According to the Dhammapadattha, wishing to damage the Buddha's reputation, the heretical scholars went to a
young nun of their sect, Cinca, who pretended to go and spend the nights at the monastery of the Buddha and declare to
anyone who wanted to listen that she had shared Gautama's room. She went so far as to fake pregnancy by wrapping her
belly in linens (pilotika), and then attaching a wooden plate ( u / ka) to her belly. She entered the assembly
where the Buddha was in the process of preaching the Dliarma and bitterly reproached him for abandoning her and having
no interest in the baby that was about to be born. The Buddha remained calm: "Whether what you say is true or false,
sister, you and I are the only ones who know." At the same moment, India appeared accompanied by four devaputras. The
latter transformed themselves into four mu e (m ind gna d die cords that held up the wooden disc. The dropping
down of the disc uncovered Cinca's trick who fled in shame, pursued by the crowd. The earth opened up under her steps,
fire enveloped her completely and she fell into the depths of hell. - The other versions of this story show considerable
lui nces. ( / i! i II / the pioud oi the Woman with many tongues, is sometimes a
heretic nun, disciple of fvcsakambala, sometimes a delinquent Buddhist nun. In some sources, she suffers no punishment.
Buddha ate oats (yava), he expressed no anger^^°, but when the king of the gods offered him food of o
hundred flavors (ahara satarasasampanna) [as compensation], he felt no joy. "
in others she falls into hell; in one story, she is condemned to be burned, but the Buddha intercedes for her and she is
simply banished. Cf. Dhammapadattha, III, p. 178-183 (Burlingame, Legends, III, p. 19-23; Kern, Histoire, I, p. 161-164;
Jataka, III, p. 298; IV, , p. 187-189; Apadana, I, p. 299; Itivuttaka Comm. I, p. 69; Udana Comm., p. 263 sq.; Cheng king,
T 154 (no. 9), k.l, p. 76a-b; Hing k'i hing king, T 197 (no. 8), k. 2, p. 170c; Pen k'i king, T 199, p. 201cl9; Ta pao tsi
king, T 310, k. 28, p. 154cl8; Pou sa tc'ou t'ai king, T 384, k. 7, p. 1055c; Ken pen chouo... yao che, T 1448, k. 18, p.
95b; Fa hien tchouan, T 2085 (tr. Legge, p. 60); Hiuan-tsang, Siyuki, T 2087, k. 6, p. 900a (tr. Beal, II, p. 9; tr. Watters,
Travels, I, p. 392).
According to some theories opposed by the M !'p ih< 1 ,mi ofCin on of tin punishment >i ih I'inc sins of the
Buddha, cf. below, k. 9, p. 121c.
See L. Feer, Cinca-manavika Sundan, JA, Mar. -April, 1897, p. 288-317.
24° In the twelfth year of his ministry, the Buddha was visited by a brahmin called Veranja in the Pali soutces, or more
often Agnidatta in the Chinese sources. He wanted to know why the Buddha did not bow to the aged monks and. having
asked a scries of questions, he invited the Buddha and his monks to spent! the rainy season at veranja (cf. Vinaya, III, p.
1-6; Ahguttara, IV, p. 173-179; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 157), k. 40, p. 679b-680b). When the Buddha, accompanied by
500 monks, went to Veranja, the brahmin who was at the same time the king of that region, did not receive him in his
palace. He was too busy with his pleasures and, according to some sources, Mara had disturbed his mind. As there was a
famine occurring at that time, the monks returned with empty bowls from their alms round. Some horse dealers
(asvavanij-) gave them some oats (ma me), according to the Chinese ｅxpression, "dry grain measured in patthas"
( /' ,' 'ii iiilm to tin I li out ' i >r tin 'ii'i.iili ili in i! en itisficd mImIh coarsi food but
vv hen the Buddha ate it, the gods gave flavor (oja) to each mouthful that he look. At the end of three months, the Buddha
gave notice of his departure to Veranja or Agnidatta. The latter excused himself for his lack of hospitality, offered the
monks a grand feast and gave a gift to each of them. - According to the U| ihi th mldl i idemned to eating
the oats for three months because in the course of one of his previous existences, at the time of the Buddha Phussa, he
forbade monks to eat rice and had advised them to eat oats.
This story occurs in many texts but with notable differences. - Pali sources: Vinaya, II, 1-11 (tr. Horner, I, p. 1-1);
Dhammapadattha, II, p. 153-157 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, II, p. 193-194); Cullasukajataka (Jataka 430, III, p. 494-495;
Apadana, I, p. 300, v. 25-26; Milinda, p. 231; Samantapasadika, I, p. 176 sq.; Suttanipata Comm., I, p. 154; Udana
Comm., p. 265. - Chinese sources: In the Vinayas, Che song liu, T 1435, k 26, p. 187b-189a; Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 1,
p. 1-2; Sseu fen liu. T 1328, k. 1, p. 568c-569c; Ken pen chouo... yao che, T 1448, k. 18, p. 96a-13-14. See also Ta fang
pien fo pao ngen king, T 156, k. 3, p. 137a6-7; Tchong pen k'i king, T 196 (no. 15), k. 2, P. 162c-163c; Hing k'i hing
king, T 197 (no. 9), k. 2, p. 172a-c; Ratnakuta in Ta pao tsi king, T 310, k. 28, p.l54c20-21; P'ou sa tch'ou t'ai king, T
384, k. 7, p. 1056a; Ta tche tou louen, T 1509, k 9, p. 121c; k 27, p. 261a; k 38, p. 341b; King liu yi siang, T 2121, k. 5,
p. 20a-c.
the same brahmin appears again in another anecdote which we will meet filer (.Ylpps, k. 22, p. 225a-b). For two days in a
row, a brahmin filled the Buddha's bowl; the third day, he lost patience. The Buddha in several stanzas praised the
continuity of generosity; the brahmin filled his bowl again once, but the Buddha refuses food given io him as a result of a
sermon. As nobody else could cal ii, the brahmin threw ii into the river which began to boil immediately. Struck by this
miracle, he became a believer. The Mpps, which places this second storj in Sravasti in the house of the brahmin P'o lo
touo che or Bharadvaja (the name of a famous brahmin elan; cf. Malalasckara, II, p. 373), seems to take its information
[The Buddha] is single-minded (ekacitta), without duality (advaya). In all things, whatever they may be,
food and drink (dhdra), robes and clothing (patavasana), beds and seats (saydsana), praise and blame
(varnanavijrmbhd), mistrust and respect (vitandanagaurava), the Buddha's mind remains indifferent. It is
like pure gold which, even when burned, melted, beaten or polished, shows no increase or decrease. [On
the contrary], the arhats, although they have broken the bonds (bandhana) and have found the Path, still
retain the traces ( vdsana ) [of the passions]; this is why they cannot be called Bhagavat.
Question. - Bhagavat is one name, but the Buddha has other epithets.
Answer. - Since the qualities (guna) of the Buddha are innumerable (apramdna), his epithets also are
innumerable. These epithets include all his glory, for people understand it in many ways. The Buddha
possesses still other names: he is called Tathagata, etc.
TATHAGATA250
from the partial translation of the Samyuktagama, T 100 (no. 80), k. 4, p. 401 b-c, where the brahmin is also called P'o lo
fan did (Bharadvaja). - on the other hand, in tin < mpl l< ii n lati n of tin ii nkta m I 99 (no. 1157), k. 42, p.
308 a-b, the hero of the story is the brahmin Houo yu (86; 134 and 8) from Rajgrha. Now Houo yu is the literal translation
of Agnidatta, the name of the brahmin from Vcrahja. finally, in the corresponding passage in the Pali Samyutta, I, p.
174-174, the same brahmin is called Udaya. The result of al! (his is that Bharadvaja, Agnidatta-Vcraiija and Udaya arc all
one: Buddhaghosa has already noticed this, and he notes in his Samantapasadika, I, p. Ill, that the real name of the
brahmin was Udaya but that he was called Vcrahja because he was born and lived in Vcrahja.
In short, the brahmin who, at Vcrahja, forced the Buddha to eat oats and who, at SravastI or at Rajagrha, ended up by
filling his bowl three times, hi! In j i mal nann ' n 'in mm ol hi clan, B , , hi urnam
Veranja (because he was born and lived in Veranja), and was called , Ignidatta ! because as brahmin, he worshipped fire).
Finally, we note that the Mahavastu (III, p. 108, 1. 17-109, 1. 4) puts into the mouth of Udayrn the stanzas addressed to
Udaya in the Samyutta, I, p. 174, which is probably an error.
24" The gods often augmented the nutritive value (oja) of the Buddha's food, cf. Milinda, p. 231 sah akalani >liani
i nli! ill n i iiin i a 1 ill maintain I u idn i icalth in tl i I Vcrahja
also Majjhima, I, p. 245; Lalitavistara, p. 264, where the gods suggest to the Bodhisattva that they introduce strength
through his pores: te ronu > i >/ i i akshepsydmah
250 Eight explanations in Buddhaghosa, Sumangala, I, p. 59-67. Many attempts ai interpretation by recent writers. E. W.
Hopkins, Buddha as Tathagata, I. Philol., 1911, p. 205-209, mentions the epic use of tathagata, "in so (grievous) a
condition", "as good as dead", "dead". - R. Chalmers, Tathagata, JRAS, 1898, p.113-115, comments that this epithet is
not applied solely to the Buddha. - Rhys Davids, Dialogues, I, p. 73, II, p. 1, notes the confusion that exists between the
two concepts, Buddha and Arhat. - R. O. Franke, WZKM, IX, P. 347, n. 1; first translates "zur Wahrheit gelangt"; but in
his study on the Tathagata (Digiiaiiikaya in AuswaliL Gottingcn, 1913, p. 287-301): "der so Gegangene", "derjenige, dcr
dicscn Wcg zuriickgelegl hat". - C. Rhys Davids, Manual of Psychological Ethics, London, 1923, p. 270: "he who has
won truth' In I. i u mi if Buddln f'oi {drain f >nd >» 1932, p. I lo In rcmarl thai it tin b ginniii
latha i i doi n >i d> i nati >ak imuni particular! but an di ipl hats< < i VI. Wallcsci ur Hei i ' l< oi
Tathagata, Taisho Gakuho, Apr. 1930, p. 21-33: Tathagata according to Buddhaghosa's interpretation (which glosses
sattva) means "Mensch" or "Lebewesen" in common language, and it is better translated by "Wiedergekerter" or
"Vollcndctcr". - L. dc La Vallcc 1 issin, Dogme et 1 I ais 1930, p. 169: In classical Buddhism, the Buddha is
Why is he called To t'o a k'ie t'o (tathagata)?
1. He preaches the natures of the dharmas (dharmalaksana) in the way (tathcl) that he has understood
(gata) them.
2. In the way that the [previous] Buddhas have gone by the path of safety (yogah u mcinun go), thus (tatha)
the [actual] Buddha is going (gata) and will not go on to new existences (punarbhava).^
ARHAT252
The Buddha is also called A lo ho (arhat). Why is he called Arhat?
1. Ara means enemy (ari) and hat means to kill (han). The ｅxpression therefore means "killer of
enemies". " Some stanzas say:
The Buddha has patience (ksanti) as his armor (varman),
Energy (virya) as his helmet (sirsaka),
Discipline (sila) as his great steed (mahdsva),
Dliyuna as his bow (dhanus),
Wisdom (prajha) as his arrows (sura).
Outwardly, he destroys the army of Mara (mdrasena).
Inwardly, he destroys the passions (Mesa), his enemies.
He is called Arhat.
qualified as arhat, bul (he word arhat also designates the disciple who has acquired sainthood. on the other hand, the
disciple, the arhat, is never qualified as Buddha. - E. J. Thomas, Tathagata and Tathdgaya, BSOS, VIII, p. 781-788: The
words Tathagata, arhat, arc prior lo Sakyamuni and Buddhism. Tathagata is the Sanskritization of a Prakrit form that has
nothing to do with tatha and gata. Prior to the Singhalese etymologists, there was no though! of explaining, by way of
Sanskrit or Pali, these words which are perhaps an an. - The Chinese and Tibetan traditions of the epithet 'Tathagata" also
mcri iii nt ion n 'V < bin | n il i I I * ilia / > i I \ i i (in Japan
Taisho Daigaku Gakuho, Apr. 1930; for tin. In i. qnn il i I ). Schrader, < Tih f the Buddha
IHQ, IX, 1933,p.l6-48.
•"i Cf. Sumahgala. I, p. 60-62 (second explanation).
2 -' 2 Cf. Buddhaghosa's explanations. Sumangala, I, p. 146; Visuddhimagga, I, p. 19 Tattha < \ ' f < < j i 1 1 Bhagcn
i ti veditahho " Because he is fai ay ( [from the passions], because I has destroyed the enemies ( [i.<
the passions], because he has broken the spokes (ara) [of the wheel of existence], because he is worthy (araha) of
receiving the necessities, because he stays apart from evil actions, for all these reasons the Blessed one is called
Arahant." See also .Vlajjhima, I. p. 280: Ahguttara, IV, p. 145.
I". Visuddhimagga, p. 198: 7 i / latattdpi araham.
2. Furthermore, A marks negation and rahat means 'to be born'. The ｅxpression means, therefore, "unborn".
The seeds (bija) of the mind of the Buddha (buddhacitta) 'do not arise' in the field of rebirths
(punarbhavaksetra), for ignorance (avidyd) in him has been dissolved.
3. Finally, Arhat means worthy (arhat) of receiving worship ipuja). The fetters (sumyojaiui) ha\ e been cut
in the Buddha, he has attained omniscience (sarvajnata); therefore he merits receiving the worship of
beings in heaven and on earth. This is [71c] why the Buddha is called Arhat.254
SAMYAKSAMBUDDHA
He is also called San miao sanfo t'o (saniyakscimbiiddlui). Why'.'
1. Samyak means perfectly, sam means fully, and budh means understanding. The ｅxpression thus means
"He who understands all dharmas perfectly and completely". ^55
Question. - How does he understand perfectly and fully?
Answer. -
He understands suffering (duhkha) as suffering (duhkhalaksana),
He understands the origin (samudaya) as origin,
He understands cessation (nirocllui) as cessation,
He undertands the Path (mdrgd) as the Path.
Therefore he is called Samyaksambuddha.
2. Furthermore, he knows that all the dharmas are truly unchangeable (abhedya), without increase or
decrease. Why are they unchangeable? When the functioning of the mind (cittapravrtti) is stopped (sthita)
and destroyed (niruddhd), when the path of speech (abhildpamdrga) is cut, he understands that dharmas
are motionless {acaldy- , like nirvana itself. This is why he is called Samyaksambuddha.
3. Finally, the languages (adhivacana) of all the universes (lokadhdtu), the ten directions (dasadis), the
languages of beings (sattva) in the six destinies (gati), the history of previous lives (purvajanmaniddna) of
beings and their birthplaces (utpddasthdna) in future generations (andgatajanma), the natures of the mind
(cittalaksana) of all beings in the ten directions, their fetters (samyojana), their roots of good (kusalamiila)
3 Ibid., p. 201 4 \ i I ironti This is the only valid
etymological explanation.
-- 1 -' Cf. Visuddhimagga, p. 201: samma sama/l at sahhadliainiiiaiuiHi puna huddhatta sammasamhuddho.
5 " We know that the Mahayana schools equate samsara and nirvana. Cf. Madh. vrtti, XXV, v. 19-20, p. 535
(Stcherbatsky, Buddhist Nirvana, P- 205; Lav., Madhyamaka, MCB, II, 1933, p. 29; Lankavatara, p. 42,;
\'l;ulhyanta\ ibhai'iga, p. 160: Samgraha, p. 127, 265.
and their outcome (nihsarana): all the dharmas of this kind he knows in detail. " This is why he is called
Samyaksambuddha.
VIDYACARANASAMPANNA
He is also called Pi tch'e tcho lo na sun pan na (vidydcaranasampanna), i.e., endowed with knowledges
(vidya) and practices (carana).° Why is he called thus?
The three knowledges (vidyd) are: 1) the memory of former existences (purvanivdsdnusmrti), 2) the divine
eye (divyacaksus), 3) the destruction of the impurities (clsravaksaya)--' .
Question. -What differernce is there between the superknowledges (abhijna) and the knowledges
(vidyd)? 260
Answer. - The abhijna knows the previous past existences (afftapurvajanma), the vidya knows the past
actions (atTtakarman) that are the cause. - The abhijna knows that such and such a being will die here and
be reborn there, the vidya recognizes [in these deaths and rebirths] the unfailing result of the actions
(carita) that are its cause (hetupratyayd). - The abhijna knows that [such and such a being] has destroyed
the fetters (samyojana), but does not know if he will be reborn again or will never be reborn again; the
vidya knows that once the impurities (dsravaksaya) have been destroyed, one is no longer reborn. These
three vidyas [are not the prerogative exclusively of the Buddha]; they are also attained by the great arhats
and the great pratyekabuddhas.
Question. - If that is so, how are they different from the Buddhas?
Answer. - Although they have these three vidyas, their knowledge is not complete (paripurna). In the
Buddhas, the knowledge is complete: that is the difference.
Question. - What is incomplete knowledge (aparipurnd vulva)"! What is complete knowledge (paripurna
vidya)'!
Anwer. - By means of their knowledge of previous existences (purvanivdsdnusmrtijndna), the arhats and
pratyekabuddhas know themselves and know others in an incomplete way only. Some arhats remember
/:>/ The Buddha derives these consciousnesses from his abhijnas. There is a short bibliography of the abhijhas in
Samgraha.
CI 1 I in i / >r the three vijja, it refers
to the Bhayabhcravasutta (.Ylajjhima, !, p. 22) and for the eight vijja to Ihc Ambatthasutta (Digha, I, p. 100). - For the
dvandva vijjdcarana, DTgha, III, p. 97, 98, 237: Samyutta, I, p. 153, 166; II, p. 284; V, p. 197; Anguttara, II, p. 163; IV, p.
238; V, p. 237; Suttanipata, v. 163, 289, 442.
25y These are the three vidyas acquired during the three watches under the Bodhi tree: DTgha, III, p. 220, 275; Majjhima,
I, p. 22, 248; Anguttara, V, p. 211. The Kosa, VII, p. 108, defines them: asaiksi purve....
asravaksayajnanasaksdtkriyavidya.
^"° Acording to the Kosa, VII, p. 108, among the six abjihas cited by these sutras (e.g.. Digha, ill, p. 28 I ), the last three
are vidyas: the memory of previous existences, the divine eye and the destruction of the impurities.
one, two or three generations, [72a] ten, a hundred, a thousand or ten thousand kalpas, even 80,000 kalpas,
but beyond that, their memory stops and they know no more. This is why they do not have the complete
knowledge of the divine eye (divyacaksurvidya). [Their knowledge] of future generations (andgatajanma)
likewise [is imperfect]. on the other hand, the Buddha knows the time of arising ( utpdda ), duration (sthiti)
and cessation (bhanga) contained in a single moment (ekaksana), the time of arising of the fetters
(samyojana), the time of their duration and the time of their cessation. He knows which fetters are cut
during the stage of patient acceptance of suffering (duhkhe dharmaksanti) and the patient acceptance of the
cognition of suffering (duhkhe dharmaksdntih). He knows that by freeing oneself thus from the fetters
(samyojanavimocand), liberation of conditioned dharmas (samskrtadharma) is obtained in such and such a
place, and liberation of unconditioned dharmas (asamskrtadharma) is obtained in another place, and so on
up to the patient acceptance similar to the Path (mdrgopamaksanti) and the fifteen mind-moments of the
path of seeing the truths (satyadarsanamdrga).* All of this is unknown to the sravakas and the
pratyekabuddhas because their time is limited. It is thus that the Buddha knows the history (niddnd) of past
beings (atTtasattva) and the [moment of the] destruction of their impurities (dsravaksaya). He knows the
future (andgatu) md the pi cut (pnityutpi no) in the same way. This is why he is said to be "endowed
with the knowledges and the practices."
By practices (carana) we mean here physical and vocal acts kKdyavdkkarman)?-^ For the Buddha alone,
physical and vocal acts are perfect ( ?ampannay , ®- > ; in all others, they present faults. He is therefore called
Vidyacaranasampanna.
261 The Path proper is the path of abandonment of the passions (prahdnamdrga). It begins with the Path of seeing
u i isniiti | consi in. i 1. 1 ihc understanding (ahlusainaya) of the four truths, it is composed of sixteen thoughts, four
thoughts for each truth. Let us lake as example ihc cognition of Ihc truth of suffering {cluhkhasatya). At ihc first moment,
the arya takes hold of the truth of the suffering of kamadhatu by means of a patient acceptance called duhkhe
I in i i I in m i ii mi i!n mi truth by mean fa know led ill 1 hid
Bythis\ci\ 1 n ut ih p< ion (prtt i) ol i n iu< i n < ffli u u (I i lh n he takes possession of the
destruction of these afflictions. At the third and the fourth moments, through a new patient acceptance rind a new
knowledge, he takes hold of and then grasps the truth of the suffering of riipa- and arupyadhatu, and expels., in two times,
tli iti | >r 'ii Mil" ii in lelative to them. The same exercise is repeated four times for the other three truths, which
makes a total of sixteen moments, involving a total of eight patient acceptances and eight knowledges. At the sixteenth
moment ih rya obi <n tin fruit I iti into in . mil r, tpatti): he is assured ol urivin I liberation I ill lot
ittaining nirvana, he must still travel the Path of meditation (h i , i nd d tro ihc pa ion , lm h ilv ccin il
Ihc truths had not been able to extirpate. - For further details, see Lav., Note soiuiiiaire stir le Clicmiii, ICosa, V, p. IV-XI;
Notes sur le chemin du Nirvana, Bull, de la CI. des Lettres de l'Ac. Roy. de Belgique, 1924, p. 282-296; 1925, p. 15-34;
Morale, p. 93-117.
2 " 2 By carana, the Visuddhimagga, p. 202, means: discipline (sUasamvara), sense restrainl (indriyi Ivdrata)
in di ' in in in eating (bin it tit), vigil m il i >ga), the si n irtui {sal tit cf.
Vh i n ii I | 7) and the I ui dii i if the material ilm {cattai cava l
See below, k. 26, p. 247b-c: the physical, vocal and mental acts of the Buddha are preceded by knowledge and are in
i informil Hi Win ledge (sarvakaym ( iirvain inanai van 1 his is one of the 18
special attributes of the Buddha (dvenika buddhadharma).
SUGATA264
He is also called Sieou k'ie t'o (sugata). Su means 'good' and gata means either 'to go' or 'speaking' (gad).
Therefore the ｅxpression means the 'Well-gone' or the 'Well-spoken'.
The Buddha has transcended by all kinds of deep concentrations (gambhira samddhi) and numberless great
wisdoms (apranuind nuihupnijnu). Thus a stanza says:
The Buddha has omniscience (sarvajnana) as his chariot,
By means of the eightfold noble Path, he has gone to nirvana.
This is why he is called Sugata, well-gone.
2. He is Sugata, well-spoken, because he preaches the doctrine according to the true nature (satyalaksana)
of the dharmas and without being attached (abhinivesa) to the doctrine. Taking into account the degree of
wisdom (prajndbala) of his disciples, he uses every skillful means (updya) and the power of his
superknowledges (abhijnd) to convert them (parindma). He alone knows who can be saved, who is sick or
weakened, what each one needs to be saved, to whom it is suitable to preach generosity (ddna) or
discipline (sila) or nirvana, to whom he can expound the system (dharma) of the five elements
(pancaskandha), the twelve causes u/s adasahetupratyaya) or the four truths (caturdryasatya), etc., in order
to introduce them into the Path.
It is under aspects such as these that he knows the extent of knowledge (jndnabala) of his disciples and
that, consequently, he preaches the doctrine. This is why he is called Sugata, well-spoken.
LOKAVID265
He is also called Lou Ma pai (lokavid). Loka means world and vid means to know. The ｅxpression thus
means 'Knower of the world'.
Question. - How does he know the world?
Answer. - 1. He knows two kinds of worlds: (i) the animate world (sattvaloka), (ii) the inanimate world
(asattvaloka) in their true nature (satyalaksana). He knows the world (loka), its cause (hetu), its destruction
(nil odha) and the supraworldly Path (lokottaramarga).
" ' mi qilanatioi ii Vi mlllniin i p 20 ohluui, • Hi sundaram ti h ' i u idgatattd sammd .
gadattd Sugato. "He is Sugata because his path is noble, because he goes to a good place, because his walk is correct, ai
because he speaks (gad) correctly,"
265 Visuddlumagga p 2(M i i i 1 he Buddha knows the world of the formatio
(sankhdraloka), the world of beings ( / , /) ind tin irld ol pai (. i lo i nli ill (heir subdivisions.
2. Furthermore, his knowledge of the world is not like conventional knowledge (samvrtijnana) or like
heretical knowledge (tirthikajnana); he knows that the world is suffering (duhkha) because it is transitory
(anitya), and non-substantial (anatmaka) because it is suffering.
3. Finally, he knows that the world by its nature is neither eternal (sdsvata) nor non-eternal (asdsvata),
neither finite (antavat) nor infinite (ananta), neither changing (cyuta) nor unchanging (acyuta). He is not
attached (abhinivisate) to such characteristics (laksana). Pure (visuddha), eternal (nitya), unalterable
(avipranasa), [the world] is like space (akasasama). This is why he is called Lokavid.
ANUTTARA266
[72b] He is also called^ neou to lo (anuttara), i. e., Without superior. Why is he Anuttara?
1 . Nirvana is the highest dharma. The Buddha alone knows this nirvana; he has not learned it from another.
Besides, he guides beings and leads them to nirvana. Just as nirvana is without superior among all the
dharmas, so the Buddha is without superior among beings.
2. Furthermore, no-one is his equal and, a fortiori, surpasses him in discipline (slid), samadhi and wisdom
(prajna). This is why he is called Anuttara.
3. Furthermore, A indicates negation and uttara means refutation. All the systems of the heretics (tirthika)
can be refuted and destroyed because they are false (asatya) and impure (avisudda). But the doctrine of the
Buddha cannot be either refuted or destroyed because it escapes any discussion
(sarvavivddasamatikrdnta); it is true (satya) and pure ( visuddha). This is why he is called Anuttara.
PURUSADAMYASARATHP67
He is also called Fou leou cha fan miao so lo t'i (purusadamyasdrathi). Purusha means man, damya
means to be converted and sdrathi means the leader of a caravan. The ｅxpression thus means 'Leader of the
caravan of men to be converted'.
266 visuddhimagga, p. 204: ibid p. 20 na \ ' assa uttara ti
Anuttaro "There is no-one better endowed with qualities than him; no-one surpasses him."
2 "' Visuddhimagga, p. 207: Purisadamme sareti ti .... pi amanussapurisa pi. According to this explanation, the puriisaa
that the Buddha converts arc male beings, whether (hey are animals (tiraccliaiia). human (in I oi nanusyas. The
*• i udhin 'ii i impl om on i ion < i mi i il 1/ data (Di > i ,<! ma, ] I im in il p ihl i
IV, p. 742; Mahavamsa, XXX, v. 84; Hiuan-tsang, tr. Beal, I, p. 122; Fa hien, tr. Legge, p. 29). Cidodara and Mahodara
(Ylahavamsa, I, v. 45 seq; Sam m ii u idil I, p. 120) ' mcl ' / ( mi natap i Ii 1 i I, p. 120);
i (.Ylahavamsa II ' imantapa m 1 i i ' pin il ll-known elcpl ml ( / )
- Conversions of amanusyas, e.g., Alavaka (Sarattha, I, p. 317; Suttanipata Comm. I, p. 217-240): Suciloiiia and
Kharaloma (Samyutta, 1, p. 207 seq: Suttanipata, II, 5). Sakha (Dlgha, II, p. 263 sq.).
We will see below thai She Mpps gives a broader extension to the word purusa; it sees in it not only 'males' but any
human being whatsoever, male, female or hermaphrodite.
1. With his great loving kindness (mahdmaitri), his great compassion {mahakaruna) and his great wisdom
(mahdjndna) he uses a voice that is sometimes sweet (saksna), sometimes harsh (parusa), sometimes
lukewarm (saksnaparusa) so that the cara\ an (sdrtha) does not lose its way. 26° Some stanzas say:
The doctrine of the Buddha is a chariot, the disciples are the horses,
The true dharmas are the merchandise, the Buddha is the leader.
When the horses stray from the path and wander from the way,
The Buddha corrects them and controls them.
If they do not spurn his orders,
He carefully sets them back onto the narrow path.
But if they are incorrigible, he abandons them.
This is why he is a peerless leader.
2. Furthermore, there are five kinds of leaders (sdrathi): (i) the law of one's parents, brothers and sisters
and the family, (ii) the law of the village head, (Hi) the law of the mandarin. These three laws govern the
present life, (iv) King Yen lo (Yama) governs the future life, (v) the Buddha ensures the well-being (hita)
[of beings] by present happiness (ihatrasukha), future happiness (paratrasukha) and the happiness of
nirvana (nirvdnasukha). This is why he is the supreme leader. People do away with the [first] four laws
soon enough; they are unable always to observe them. The Buddha governs (tche) men by means of the
threefold Path (mdrgatraya). He never abandons them along the way. Just as the self-nature (svalaksana)
of fire (tejas-) accompanies fire until it is extinguished (nirodha), so the Buddha, who procures good
dharmas (kusaladharma) for men, follows them up to their death and does not abandon them. This is why
the Buddha is called Purusadamyasarathi.
Question. - The Buddha converts (vinayati) women (stri) also and makes them fond of the Path. Why is it a
question of men only [in the name purusadamyasarathi]?
Answer. - 1. Because men are noble whereas women are lowly, because the woman follows the man and
because the man [alone] is master of his actions.
2. Furthermore, women encounter five hindrances (avarand): they cannot become cakravartin king, or
Sakradevaraja, or Maradevaraja, or Brahmadevaraja.^"". This is why the Buddha does not say it [here].
Zb * Allusion to Kesisutta of the Ahguttara, II, p. 1 12 (cf. Tsa a han, T 99, no. 923, k. 33, p. 234b-c): Aham kho KesL... pi
269 The source is Majjhima, III, p. 65-66 (missing in Tchong a han, T 26, k. 47, p. 723; Ahguttara, I, p. 28; Vibhanga, p.
336; Nettipakarana, P. 93: "It is impossible that in the present and the future a woman should become a perfectly
enlightened arhal (= (lie Buddha), a cakravartin king. Sakra, Mara or Brahma. That does not happen." (attlianain ctain
aiuivakaso.... n'etam thanam vijjati). Thus (here are five impossibilities for a woman: she cannot be Buddha or cakravartin
or Sakra (lndra) or Mara or Brahma.
3. Finally, if one said that the Buddha is the leader of the caravan of women (strisdrathi), this would be
disrespectful. By saying that he is [the leader of the [72c] caravan] of men, all classes of [human beings]
are included. When [one says] "The king is coming", one knows that he is not coming alone but is
accompanied by his retinue (parivdra)^'^; in the same way, when one speaks of men (purusa), [mentally]
one includes hermaphrodites {ubhayavyanjanaka), asexual beings {avyanjanaka) and women (stri). This is
why [only] men are spoken of [here]. For these reasons the Buddha is called Purusadamyasarathi.
SASTA DEVAMANUSYANAM271
He is also called Cho to t'i p'o ma neou cho nan (sclstcl clevamanusyclnclm). Sclstd means teacher, deva
means gods and manusydndm means men (in the genitive case). The ｅxpression thus means "Teacher of
gods and men". Why is he called teacher of gods and men? The Buddha shows [gods and men] what
should be done and what should not be done, what is good (kusala) and what is bad (akusala). Those who
follow his instructions do not abandon the doctrine of the Path and acquire liberation from their passions
(kleshavimoksa) as reward (vipdka). Thus he is called Teacher of gods and men.
Question. - The Buddha [does not save only gods and men]. He can save also the beings who have fallen
into other destinies (gati) such as the nagas, the asuras, etc. 2 Why is it said only that he is the teacher of
gods and men?
Answer. - 1 . The Buddha rarely saves beings belonging to the other destinies, whereas he frequently saves
those who are reborn among gods and men. [This is why it is said that he only saves gods and men.] Just as
when a man is white in color, even if he has black stains on his face, he is not described as a negro,
because the black is insignificant.
The Saddharmapundarika, p. 264, retains this ride, but modifies its formulation slightly: Panca stliaiumi stry tulyapi....
pancainain arairartikahodlusattrasthaiiain. There are exceptions to the rule: thus it is known, p. 263, thai the daughter of
ii ' 1 1 of the na i [ i I mi idling the state of fully accomplished Buddhahood" (sa sainyaksainhodhiin
abhisambodhim samarthd).
The Mpps, which is famili u ith il. i i ol S igara' d aighter to which it will allude below, (k. 4, p. 92b) sees here the
impossibility of maintaining the canonical formula in lis integral text. As a good exegetist, it resorts to a compromise thai
consists of retaining the textual plan while completely emptying it of its content: it recognizes that a woman encounters
in in p i ii ilitii I ii 'I i .mil i i iti onl; i mi >1 iIm n oiro n i nn i I cakravartin kra, Mara or Bi ihm i
This omission is deliberate and is not to be explained by a mere omission for, later on (k. 9, p. 125a6), it will say that a
woman cannot become a cakravartin king or Sakradcvcndra oi \'\ u id< ■ .j ,| i oi 13 1 dim nl> > u ij i. bnl il • ucfully omits
saying thai she cannot be Buddha.
2 ' ° The same comparison in Atthasalini, p. 67: Yatha i djd dgato veva a •
- ' ' i I V'i ii'dhuiii p. 208: Ditthadhainn vii itthchi c'tttunvuttam.
2'2 s ee above the examples of conversions among animals and amanusyas. Visuddhimagga, p. 208-209, tells the story of
the frog Mandaka which, at Campa, was listening to Buddha preaching, when a cow herder, leaning on ins slick, crushed
his h 1 1 i is reborn among tl Ii trii Is (el imana ilil i \ I > mi ,n Comm.p 216 sq.; Milinda, p.
350; Samantapasadika, I, p. 121).
2. Furthermore, the fetters (samyojana) among men {manusya) are light and detachment (nirvedacitta) is
easy to attain (sulabha). Wisdom (prajnd) is sharp (tiksna) among the gods. This is why the Path is easily
found in these two states. This is not the case in the other destinies (gati).
3. Furthermore, by saying 'gods', all the heavenly (svarga) beings are included; by saying 'men', all the
beings on the earth (prthivi) are included. Why? Because in the heavens, the gods are the principal
(adhimdtra) beings, and on earth, men are the principal beings. Therefore by saying "gods" all the beings
in the heavens are included, and by saying 'men' all the beings on the earth are included.
4. Furthermore, among men, moral discipline (silasamvara), the path of seeing the truths
(satyadarsanamdrga), the path of meditation (bhdvandmdrga), and the fruits of the path (mdrgaphala) are
found. In the other destinies, these benefits cannot be found according to some or very rare according to
others.
on the other hand, they are easy to obtain and very frequent among gods and men. This is why the Buddha
is the teacher of gods and men.
5. Finally, among men, the causes of happiness (sukhahetu) are frequently cultivated; among gods, the
fortunate reward (sukhavipclka) is common. The causes [73a] of happiness are all the good dharmas
(kusaladharma): happiness (sukha) is the reward (vipdka) of these good dharmas. In destinies [other than
those of gods and men], the causes of happiness and fortunate reward are rare. This is why the Buddha is
the teacher of gods and men.
BUDDHA273
He is also called Fo t'o {buddha) [in the language of Ts'in, scholar]. What dharmas does he know? He
knows all dharmas, past (utitu), future (unugatd) and present (pratyutpanna), animate and inanimate
(sattvdsattvasamkhydta), permanent and impermanent (nitydnitya). He knew them all completely under the
bodhi tree {hoclivrksa). This is why he is called Buddha.
Quesion. - Other individuals also know all the dharmas, e. g., Mo hi cheou lo (Mahesvara) [in the languag
of Ts'in, Great Lord]: he has eight arms (astabhuja), three eyes (trinetra, tryaksa) and he is mounted on a
white bull (vrsavdhana) [Nandi]. Or also the god Wei nieou (Visnu) [in the language of Ts'in, Pien wen,
Univeral Eye]: he has four arms (caturbhujd), holds a conch (sahkei) and a wheel (cakra), and rides a
golden-winged bird (garudd). Or also the god Kieou mo lo (Kumara): he holds a cock (kukkuta), a bell
(ghanta), a red standard (lohitapatdkd) and is mounted on a peacock (sikhigata).'^
2 '3 The Visuddhimagga, p. 209, gives four explanations of which here is the first: Yam pana kind neyyam nama.
i viinokkltahti/ io. Cf. .VI ah inulil i p L 1 i in mil hida, 1. p. I '
nainain mutant /attain.... vadidain Buddlio ti. - Hobogirin, liut.su, p. 191 -192, refers lo the definitions of the Mpps, T 1509,
k. 70, p. 552b; Nirvanasutra, T 375, k. 16, p. 712b; Kosa, I, p. 1; Buddhabhumisastra, T 1530, k. 1, p. 291b; Vibhasa, T
1545, k. 143, p. 735b; T 1851, k. 20B, p. 864c.
2 ' 4 Mahesvara, Visnu and Kumara, that is, Siva, Visnu and Brahma are the gods of the brahmanical trimurti.
I) Mahesvara or Siva Jou la tcli'cng loncn, 1 1634, k. 2, p. 46b: When one has purified the tenth level, one acquires
immense and infinite dharanis and upayas, one realizes all the pratisamvids and all the vasitas, one becomes
Mahesvaradevaputra, one is also the support of all the universes. Question. - Is this Mahesvara of whom you speak the
same as or different from the Mahesvara [known] in the world? Answer. - This Isvara >flh< pin ibod {suddlun li
not the Isvara [known] in the world. He has the same name as your Isvara but he is not the same individual. There is a
Mahesvara of the pure abodes and there is also a demon Mahesvara (pisacainaliesvara). ■ Mahesvara raid Visnu are often
mentioned together, e.g., in the Nagarjuna's Madhyamakasastra, T 1564, k. 1, p. lb; Aryadcv i' -iatasastra, T 1569, k. 1,
p. 168a (tr. Tucci, Pre-Diririaga, p. 1; the Kosavyakhya, p. 7. - In his Comm. on the Kosa, T 1821, K. 7, p. 140a, P'ou
Kouang, in speaking of Rudra, says: Rudra means violent. This is a synonym for Mahesvara. The god Mahesvara has, as
a whole, a thousand names, bin here below in the phenomenal world, he has sixty and Rudra is one of them. The heretics
T'o wiici (Tamsupata, I'asupata?) that Isvara Iran inl Hi >ln worlds (trailokyatikra l and that he h thrci
bodies: (i) a body of the law (dhannakaya) which fills the dharmadhatu; (ii) a body of enjoym nl ( n hoga i l th it
abides at the summit of the form tin i I in tl pala if the 1 i ulc\ as. In the Buddhist texts, it is said that
the god Mahesvara has three eyes and eight arms and that his body is 6000 vo/anaa in height: (iii) an apparitional body
{iiinnauakaya) that adapts iis form [to beings] of the six destinies (gati), leaches them and converts beings in everyway. -
In his Treatise on the nirvana of the heretics, T 1640, p. 157c (tr. Tucci, T'oung Pao, 1925-26,p. 25 sq.), Aryadeva says:
The fruit is a result of Ylahcsvara; Brahma is the cause: Mahesvara is but one nature of three parts: Brahma, Narayana (=
Visnu) and Mahesvara, The earth (prthivi) is his support. The god Mahesvara is the master of the earth. All animate and
inanim I b in in th lln i worlds have come from the god M ih i vlahcsvara's body has space (akasa) as its head,
the waters (dpalj) as urine, the mountain (pai na) i rcmcnl 11 being nc the worms in his belly; the wind (vdyu) is
his vital ['breath]: lire (tcjah) is his warmth: sins and merits (apattipunya) are his actions. These eight things comprise the
body of Mahesvara. The god Mahesvara is the cause of production and destruction. Everything comes from the god
Mahesvara and is destroyed by him: he is called nirvana. This is why teachers of the school of Mahesvara sa\ that the god
Isvara produces all tilings and is the cause of nirvana. - Ki tsang (549-623). of Parthian origin, in his commentary on the
Satasastra, T 1827, k. 1, p. 244a, adopts these teachings: The beings of the six destinies, gods and terrestrial substances,
are the body of the god Ishvara. This is why the god Isvara manifests in all three bodies: body of Isvara, body of
i ii i ma and body of Brahmadeva. The body of the god Esvara has eight parts: the ether is his head, the sun and moon
are his eyes, etc. [as above]. - The Mahaparinirvanasutra, translated by Dharmarakscma (385-433) which lasted a long
time in Central Asia and ICasmir, has a text important for the origins of Saivism, T 374, k. 19, p. 476b: Actually, there is a
great teacher called Kia lo kieou t'o Ida ' n ii ikudha I it i ma) Hi kivi i crythin (,v< Ut) i
everything (savadrs) and knows the three worlds. In one instant he could see innumerable infinite universes and so could
his disciples (sravaka). He causes beings to ehminati ill ii fault Ii I as the ( m purifii ill m hatcver they may
! inner or outci o ini < i n 1 md Ii i In i in i Ii u tin iinv md ui l in -1 ill i < in 'Hi i> n li .In i li i iph tin
following doctrine: If a person kills all bein ind i peri in no rem i i (hri li ill nol fall into th i il [di tinii ]
he is like space (akasa) impermeable to dust and water. But those who experience remorse will enter into h 11 (nai ika)
they are like the great oceans that flood the earth. All beings are creatures of the god Esvara. The god Esvara is the joy
and happiness of beings. He is angry with thi uli in oi I in in i i ind meril | t il ill icii n
controlled by this Isvara. How could one say that men are responsible for sin or merit? When a craftsman constructs a
wooden robot, this robot walks, sits and lies down, alone it cannot speak. It is the same for beings: the god Isvara is like
the craftsman, beings are like the wooden robot.
Except for the eight aims, the description of Siva given here by the Mpps corresponds to th. i pithel tryt I ia im m
'Iii d god" [Hopkin c Mytl p. 219-220 / Seated on a bulk [Bhavagirisa,
1, 197, 21). on the other hand, it is rather far from the traditional iconographical type: I he ascetic generally has four
arms; the two upper hands hold a drum (dhakkd) and a deer (mrga), the two lower arms make the gesture of generosity
(varadahasta) and absence of fear (abhayahasta). As well as his two human eyes, he has a third eye in the forehead. As
clothing, he wears only a tiger skin, and as a necklace, a live snake. on his high brahmanical head-dress he wears the
crescent moon, a skull - the fifth head of Brahma - and the sir n .1 ill m < t 1 • ron I ' i tio ' I'O ut II
L'Inde, Paris, 1930, p. 171-172; see also Mythologic asiatique illustre, Paris, 1928, p. 93-98). - This traditional type of
Siva is decribed precisely in an anonymous undated text, the Che eul t'ien kong yi kouci {Dvddasadevpujdkalpal), T
1298, p. 386a: In the north-west in id Isai ls< UedMah iradeva He is seated on a yellowish bull (?) His right
hand holds a kie po pei (kapdla, i.e., a skull) i ill i'l lo > I hi li I and holds a ; ii tri lent) I '•
color of his body is light blue. His three eyes arc blood-shot. He has two fangs sticking upward, and skulls as necklace
(keyiira), on his head-dress, the crescent moon.
2) Visnu. See below, k. 8, p. 116a; k. 10, p. 128a and Hobogirin, Bichu, p. 76-68. - His main hands hold the wheel (iron
\\ heel with a thousand spokes, symbol of the sun); they give him the cpithi t Sai < (.Vlahabh uata, 3, 189,
40). For his physical aspect in the epic, Hopkins, Epic Mythology, p. 204-207; for his mount, the garuda, ibid., p. 108,
203. Illustrations, Mythologic asiatique illustre, p. 103 sq.
3) Kumara. According to Ki tsang, in his commentary on the Madhyamakasastra, T 1824, k. 1, p. 14c, Kumara means
'young man': this is none other than king Brahma of the first dhyana (cf. ICosa, ill, p. 2-3), called thus because he has the
aspect of a young man. He is also called Narayana, thai is, the origin of beings. - According to the Pi tsang ki cited in the
Bukkyo daijitcn, p. 310b, the god Kumara has the form of a young man with six faces, yellow in color, holding a sword
and seated on a peacock. - In Brahmanism, this is the god Skanda (cf. Hopkins, Epic Mythology, p. 227-231). God of war,
he is Sanatkumara, 'liver youthful', one of Brahma's sons (Mahabharata, 12, 37, 12). In the eulogy to Siva (ibid., 13, 14, v.
378), lie appears beside Uma, seated on a peacock and holding a bell and a spear. His birth is told in the .Vlahabharata, 9,
43-46. Nursed by the ICrttikas (Pleiades), he developed six mouths in order to suckle them, hence his epithet of the six-
faced god (saddnana, sanmukha).
We may ask why Nagarjuna talks about three gods here, Mahesvara, Visnu and Kumara, whereas in the
Madhyamakasastra (T 1564, k. 1, p. lb) he mentions only the first two. The question has been asked by Li tsang in his
commentaries on the Madhyamakasastra (T 1824, k. 1, p. 14c) and Aryadeva's Satasastra (T 1827, k. 1, p. 243c-244a). He
answers in the following way: (i) The three gods ol thi hereti tak thi placi foi thi n i 1 in thi I i i I ira i hi
root, like the dharmaka isnu i I In enjoyment liki Mi mbho ikaya Brahma is produced by emanation in Visnu's
navel, and he is comparable to the nirmanakaya. But the Mahaprajnaparamitasastra teaches three bodies; this is why it
mentions three gods. [This is a mistake; the Mpps teaches only two bodies; see Hobogirin, Busshin, p. 181]. The
Madhyamaka and (he Satasastra teach only two bodies, that of the law and that of enjoyment: this is why they mention
only two gods. ( ii ) Brahma is found in Visnu's navel; there is no need to mention him separately.
The Irinitarian notions implied by the Brahmanical trimurti doctrine and (lie Buddhist theory of the Irikaya mark (he end
of a long evolution. In both systems it appears thai dualism probably preceded trinitarianism. The epics formulate the
oi nun i'iK lati i i urn i id ui i single p igi vlahabharata, 3, 272, 47. The late epic poems present Visnu and Si\ a as
two aspects of the same god; they do not try to establish a Irinitarian theology (Cf. Hopkins, Epic Mythology, p. 231).
imilarh m Buddli m h Hinayana riptui md man important \l hayana I ' i> < ignizi only two bodies for the
Buddha, the fleshly body born from father and mother, and the body of the law. The theories of the trikaya mark the end
of a long evolution. - Besides, the Brahmanical trimurti is well known to the Buddhist masters: allusion is made to it, e.g.,
T 1640, p. 157c; T 1003, k, 2, p, 61 1; T 1796, k. 2, p. 595b.
Answer. - 1 . They cannot be omniscient. Why? Because their mind remains attached (abhinivista) to hatred
(dvesa) and pride (abhhimana). Some stanzas say:
Gods of painting and sculpture,
Gods of tradition and the hymns!,
These four kinds of gods
All of them brandish a weapon in one hand.
Out of weakness they fear others
Or out of spite they dread them.
Whether they fear others from necessity
Or they dread them from weakness,
The gods are all eternal cowards,
Unable to escape from the suffering of death.
Those who revere and honor them
Can fall into a sea of misery.
Those who distrust and scorn them
Can enjoy good fortune here below,
We should know that these gods are false, unreal.
This is why the wise man does not believe in the gods.
Beings in the world
Wander about as a result of their actions:
By virtue of merits, they are reborn in the heavens.
By virtue of mixed actions, they are reborn among humans
The destiny of the world depends on causes and conditions;
This is why the wise man does not depend on the gods. *
2 ' 5 By affirming that the gods are false and without reality, thai She wise man does not believe in the gods, these stanzas
depart somewhat from Buddhist tolerance.
1) Buddhism is atheistic in the sense that its entire system rests on karma anil retribution. All beings transmigrate as a
result of their actions: these are their past deeds which determine their good or unfortunate destiny. Action takes the place
of fate. There is no place for a creator distributing good and evil among his creatures. Buddhism has always opposed
Ih i lii v'stems (ais\ I th it iaki out >l <h it otl i I ml (ls\ creator and i nil ill ol < i ilun" \i < till ii I
p. 174 (= Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 13), k. 3, p. 435b): Those who reduce everything to creation of the Lord
i longer have any inclination to act, make no effort to do this and avoid it. - Santideva in
Bodhicaryavatara, IX, v. 119-126 (tr. Lav., p. 135-137): "God is the cause of the world." - What do you mean by 'God'?
The elements? Then it's not worth the trouble for a matter of words (na n i ra) to take so many pains to prove the
existence of God. -Are you saying that God is too great for us to be able to understand him? His qualities also transcend
the mind and how can the quality of maker of the w orld be attributed to him? Moreover, we will ask what he wishes to
create (srastum). Would it be the atman, the 'self of the creatures? But this is eternal. Would it be the elements? They are
eternal. Would God create himself? He is eternal. Besides, consciousness is not created by God since, at all times, it
comes from the object: suffering and pleasure proceed from action. Then whal is il that God has created? - If God acts
without wishing, he is evidently subject to another; if he acts by wishing, he is subject to desire. Therefore if he acts, he is
not sovereign (isa). - The debate in Kosa, II, p. 311-313: V, p. 19, continues as follows: That things are produced by a
single cause, by God, Vlahadcva or Vasudeva, is inadmissible for many reasons: (i) If things were produced by a single
immutable cause, thej would all arise at the same time; bul everyone knows that they arise successively. If the order of
their production depended on causes external to God, God would no longer be the sole cause, (ii) God creates out of his
own satisfaction or for that of his creatures. If he creates for his own satisfaction, he has something to gain and he is not
God. If he creates for the satisfaction of beings, how can you explain thai the latter are victims of all the sufferings? (iii)
To affirm the creative activity of God is to unwarrantedly posit an invisible and uncontrollable Cause and to neglect the
visible causes the efficacy of which can be proven.
[On Buddhist atheism, Lav., Atheism, ERE, p. 183; Morale, P. 12-14; Oltramare, Theosophie, p. 228-231].
2) Atheistic insofar as Buddhism rejects any belief in a Supreme Being, it is theistic insofar as it welcomes gods of all
kinds into its pantheon. The threefold world is populated with gods. Theologically speaking, it is understood that the deity
has but a temporary nature, for the gods arc subject to transmigration: an animal can be reborn in a divine form just as a
god can reincarnate in the world of humans or animals. Bui with this exception, Buddhism, the connections of which v\ ith
popular religions arc many, seems to be very favorable towards gods. In his previous existence, the Buddha Sakyamuni
was king of the Tusita gods. It was at the request of Brahma Sahampati that he agreed to preach the Dharma. During his
ministry, he dwelt for three months among the gods in ordci Sis preach the Abhidharma to his mother. A quick reading of
the Lalitav isiara allows one to appreciate the importance of the role played by the ilcvaa and the ilcvataa in the biography
of the Buddha. They form a backdrop in front of which the heroic achievement of the Buddha is played out. From the
beginning, (hey arc represented on religious monuments where the faithful oiler them worship. For the Buddhist
pantheon, see A. Getty, The Gods of Northern Buddhism, Oxford, 1928; Rh. D., Buddhist India, p. 210 sq.; Lav., Dogme
ct Philosophic, p. 173): but the oldest texts insist on the existence of the gods and their beneficence to the faithful. -
Vlajjhima 11, p 212-213 >aiiga iva isks the Buddha: Do the gods exist? "I know with certainty, O Bharadvaja, that the
gods exist" (thdnnaso me tamvii h i va) Why did you not say that at the beginning? "Because
everybody knows very well (uccc sammatam lokasinim) that the gods exist." - DIgha, II, p. 88 (cf. Tch'ang a han, T 1, k.
2, p. 12c): Where man has established his dwellings, he supports with his gifts good men who know how to control (heir
senses; he brings offerings to all the gods of that place. The gods, revered and honored by him, honor and revere him in
turn. They surround him with their tenderness like a mother to the child born from her womb. The man who enjoy:; the
favor of the gods sees only happiness around himself. - Ahguttara, III, p. 77: The son of good family with his wealth....
honors, respects, reveres and pays homage to the deities who are worthy of his offi n i (b • hi vata). Thu
honored, these very kind deities have compassion for him and say: "Long life to you. May your long life be protected."
The son of good family, pitied by the gods, can attain prosperity and not decline. - The good deities are all converted to
Buddhism. They seve as the messengers of the Buddha (cf. DIgha, III, p. 14; Majjhima, I, p. 497), and often go to
recommend his doctrine to people. Thus they went to find the householder Ugga to tell him: "The Dharma has been w ell
2. Furthermore, the three gods [Mahesvara, Visnu and Kumara] wish the fulfillment of all their desires for
those who love them; to those whom they hate, they wish the seven destructions. The Buddha is not like
that. While he was still the Bodhisattva, he offered his flesh (mamsa), his head (siras-), his eyes (nayana),
his marrow (nuijjcl) and his brain (mastaka) lo his enemies (amitracaura) who had come to kill him. '"
preached by the Buddha." I / I in i I them ironically: "O deities, whether
you recognize it or not, the Dharma has been w ell-preached by the Blessed one." [This episode is given by Anguttara, IV.
p. 211, and the Chinese version of the Madhyamagama, T 26 (no. 38), k. 9, p. 481a) - In a passage from the
'i cited in the Siksasamuccaya, p. 89, all (he gods, from the devas to the pisdeas, give the following
o the Buddha: Whoever will observe the holy doctrine and bring fame to the Three Jewels, we will protect
him, we will preserve him and make him prosperous in ten ways. We will prolong his life and will always dispel the
obstacles that threaten him. We will increase his health, his position, his wealth, his enjoyment and his pleasures, his
sovereignty, his glory, his good friendships raid the perfection of his wisdom.
We must bear in mind the whole Buddhist tradition in order to appreciate the exact extent of the attacks directed at the
gods "of painting, sculpture, tradition and hymns." It is not the deities attacked here by Nagarjuna, it is the foolishness of
their sectarians who claim to raise them to the rank of a supreme Being.
276 iy[i rac i es of generosity accomplished by the Buddha in his past existences. Similar enumerations, below, k. 12, p.
146b3, 150b2; k. 17, p. 180a23. By borrowing these jatakas from the "Golden Legends" from Northwestern India, the
Mpps shows its acquaintance with southern Buddhism. The first four miracles cited here arc commemorated in the "four
great stupas of northern India." mentioned by Fa hien, T 2085, p. 858cll (tr. Legge, p. 32). The Chinese pilgrims who
passed through Uddiyana and Gandhara - Fa hicn about the year 400, Dong yun about 520, Hiuan tsang about 630 - did
not fail to visit them: their lex iti n has 1 en pn i 1 del rmincd I u hcologisl i i 1 inch i Cm nuklhiq I
p. 8-9).
(i) The "gift of the body" will be retold by the Mpps, k. 16, p. I 0b2i cing i tign ibout to d< iur her babi a
ga\e her the gift of his body. From other sources, mainly the Suvcnaprabhasa, we know that the Bodhisattva was called
Mahasattva, son of .Vlaharatha, king of the I'ahcalas. His brothers were Mahapranada and Mahadeva.
Sanskrit sources: Suvarnaprabhasa, ch. IX: VydgrTparivarta (cd. Hokci Odzumi, p. 185-213; ed. Nobel, p. 201-240;
Jatakamala, ch. 1: Vyaghrtjdtaka (cd. Kern, p. 2-8); Avadanakalpalata, ch. 5 i. v. 28-59 (ed. Chandra Das, II, p. 53-61).
Chinese sources: Lieou tou tsi king, T 1532 (no. 4), k. 1, p. 32b (tr. Cha\ amies, Contes, 1, p. 15-17); P'ou sa pen hing king
(T 155, k. 3, p. 119a25; Pen cheng man louen, T 160 (no, 1), k. 1, p. 332b-333b; P'ou sa t'eou sseu ngo hou k'i t'a yin
yuan king, T 172, vol. Ill, p. 424b-428a; Hien yu king T 202 (no. 2), k. 1, p. 352b-353b (tr. Schmidt, Der Weise und der
Thor, p. 21-26); Kin kouang ming king (T 665 (no. 26), k. 10, p. 450-456; King liu yi suang (T 2121, k. 31, p. 162).
The stupa of the "gift of the body", on Banj peak in the south-cast of Mahaban, was visited by Fa hien, T 2085, p. 858b9
(tr. Legge, pg. 32), by Song yun, T 2092, k. 5., p. 1020b7 (tr. Chavannes, Voyage de Song Yun, BEFEO, III, p. 411), and
by Hiuan tsang, T 2087, p. 885cl4-20 (tr. Beal, I, p. 145-146; Watters, I, p. 253).
Iconography: Mathura, J. Ph. Vogel, La sculpture de Mathurd, Paris, 1930, p. 62 and pi. XX. - Central Asia, A.
Griinwedel, Altbuddhistische Kultstatten, Berlin 1912, fig. 446. 447; A. von Le Coq - EWaldschmidt, Budd. Spiitantikc.
VI, 24-25. - Formosa, G. Ecke - P. Demieville, Twin Pagodas ofZayton, Cambridge, Mass., 1935, pi 41.
(ii) The "gift of flesh" will be fully told below, k. 4, p. 87c-88.
( in I I h ili of the head ICing Candraprabha of Bhadrasila (according to olhci inn ICing .Vlahapraha f Varanasi)
is renowned for his generosity. The brahmin Raudraksa comes to ask him for his head. The ministers Vlahacandra and
Mahidhara offer him a head made of precious substances: the brahmin does not accept; the king attaches his hair to a tree
And so, now that he has become Buddha, he will even less spare his life. This is why only the Buddha can
bear the name Buddha. one must pay homage (namas-) [73b] to the Buddha, take the Buddha as teacher
and not serve the gods.
SARVANAROTTAMA
and cuts his head off himself to give it to the brahmin. - The Chinese pilgrims locate the scene near Taksasila. the name of
liu I i Chavann must hav< iven rise to the I end b i false etymolo I il ra = 'cut-off head', in place of
Taksasila = 'cut-off rock'. - At any rate, the future Buddha renewed the gift of his head during a thousand successive
Sanskrit sources: Divyavadana, eh. 22, p. 314-328; Avadanakalpalata, ch. 5, (vol I, p. 154-175).
Chinese sources: Lieou tou tsi king, T 152 (no. 5), k. 1, p. 2b-c (tr. Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 17-19(; P'ou sa pen yuan
king, (T 153 (no. 5), k. 2, p. 62c-64c; Ta fang pien fo pao ngen king T 156, k. 5, p. 149b-150b; Yuc kouang [Von sa king,
T 166, vol III, p. 406-408 (corresponds to Divyavadana); Hien yu king, T 202 (no. 31), k. 6, p. 387b-390b (cf. Schmidt,
Der Weise und der Thor, p. 174-183); Fi p'o cha, T 1545, k. 1 14, p. 593a26; King liu yi siang, T 2121, K. 25, p. 137a-c.
The stupa of "the gift of the head" at Taksasila near Shah-Dheri, was visited by Fa hien, T 2085, p. 858b7-8 (tr. Legge, p.
32) and by Hiuan tsang, T 2087, k. 3, p. 884c21-23 (tr. Beal, I, p. 138: Watters, I, p. 244).
(iv) The "gift of the eyes": King Sibi gives his eyes to Sakra w ho transformed himself into a vulture (or a brahmin). The
gift is rewarded and he soon recovers his sight.
Pali sources: Sibijataka, no. 499 (Jataka, IV, p. 401-412); Cariyapitaka, I, 8, p. 77-78 (tr. Law, p. 99-100); Milinda, p. 1 19
sq. (tr. Rh. D., p. 179).
ii ' i i ( ii I iii i I ill I'd' i [i ! 4 I ). Jatakamala, chap. 2: Sibijataka, p. 6-14 (tr. Speyer,
p. 8-19).
Chinese sources: Siuan tsi po yuan king, T 200 (no. 33), k. 4, p. 218a-c; Hien yu king, T 202 (no. 32), k. 6, p. 390b-392c
(cf. Scmidt, Der Weise und der Thor, p. 288-300). The stupa of "the gift of the eyes" at Puskarmavati near Carsadda was
visited by Fa hien, T 2085, p. 858b4-5 (tr. Legge, p. 31) and by Hiuan tsang, T 2087, k. 2, p. 881z23-24 (tr. Beal, I, p.
110; Watters, I, p.215).
(v) The "gift of marrow": When he was king Utpala, the Bodhisattva wrote a text of the Dharma with one of his broken
bones as pen, his marrow as ink and his skin as parchment. This episode is told in the ICicn yu king, T 202, k. 1, p. 351b
(cf. Schmidt, Dei Weise und der Thor, p. 15; P. E. Fou ua Grammaii i i u >etai Cat is, 1858, p. 211-212);
P'ou sa pen jing king, T 155, k. 3, p. 119M6. The scene occurred at the Monastery of the Lenl J l am ma) al
Gumbatai, near Tursak, in Buner, and was visited by Song Yun, T 2092, k. 5, p. 1020M 1-14 (tr. Chavannes, BEFEO, III,
p. 412) and by Hiuan tsang, T 2087, k. 3, p. 883al2-13 (tr. Beal, I p. 124; Watters, I, p. 233-234). This episode is also told
in the Mpps, k. 16, p. 178c and k. 49, p. 412a, but the hero is If brahmii \'gai J (Dharma ik\a) or Lo j (Dharmarata);
besides, he writes the stanza "with hi-; skin as parchment and his blood as ink"; there is no mention of marrow. Thus it is
possible that the Mpps, speaking of the "gift of marrow" was not thinking of this episode.
In the "gift of marrow", I [Lamotte] rather see an allusion to the jataka where prince Candraprabha "broke one of his
bones and pushed out the marrow to cure a sick man." This deed is told by the Mpps below, k. 12, p. 146b. It is also
known to the Ratnaknta where the prince, like the rsi mentioned above is called Utpala (cf. Ta pao tsi king, T310, k. Ill,
p. 631a; Maitrcv aparipriccha. T 349. p. 1 88c; King liu yi siang, T 2121, k. 10, p. 55b).
Moreover, the Buddha possesses two things: (i) great qualities (guna) and the power of the
superknowledges (abhijha), and (ii) an absolutely pure mind (paramasuddhacitta) and the destruction of
the fetters (samyojananirodha). Although the gods have an accumulation of merit (punyasambhara) and
miraculous power (rddhibala), their fetters are not destroyed and consequently their mind is not pure.
Since their mind is impure, their miraculous power is decreased. Among the sravakas and the
pratyekabuddhas, the fetters are destroyed and the mind is pure; nevertheless, as their accumulation of
merit (punyasambhara) is reduced, their power (prabhava) is weak. In the Buddha, the two qualities [merit
and purity of mind] are perfected (paripurna). This is why he is called Sarvanarottama, Superior to all
men. He is the only one to surpass all men.
OTHER EPITHETS
Bhagavat means endowed with qualities, as has been said above. He is also called:
A so mo (asama) [in the language of the Ts'in, Without equal],
A so mo so mo (asamasama) [ibid., Equal to that which is without equal]. ^ ' '
Lou kia na t'a (lokandtha) [ibid., Protector of the world].
Po lo k'ie (paraga) [ibid., Having reached the other bank].
P'o fan t'o (bhadantd) [ibid., Venerable one].
Che li k'ie na (snguna) [ibid., Perfection of beauty].
These are his innumerable epithets. His parents named him Si ta t'o (Siddhartha) [in the language of the
Ts'in, Profit-realized one]. When he found the Path and understood all dharmas, he was called Buddha.
When he accepted the worship of gods and men, he was also called by the names Bhadanta, Sriguna. Thus,
in various ways, names are given to him according to his qualities.
THE OMNISCIENT BUDDHA
- ' ' Asamasama, epithet found, e.g., in the Saddharmapundarika, p. 456, the Mahavastu, III, p. 231, the .Ylahavyutpatti,
no. 529, 6379. Burnouf and Kern translate it as 'equal to that which has no equal'; but the early interpretations vary: (i)
completely incomparable (T 1718, k. 10, p. 1712); (2) the Buddhas are not the same (asama) as beings but the
dharmakaya is the same (sama) in nature (f 1522, k. 2); (3) There is no equality (asama) between Buddha and non-
Buddha, there is only equality (sama) between Buddha and Buddha (T 1775, k. 1; T 1721, k. 12); (4) in the nine spheres,
the mind of beings cannot succeed in equalizing things; it is only in the Buddha sphere that he can; the mind of the
Buddha is thus equal ( sama) lo the uncqualcd (asama) (T 1728, k. 10). In the same way, the six paramitas arc equal to the
unequaled Buddha (T 1509, k. 40). These different interpretations have been gathered together in Hobogirin,
Ashamasliama, p. 38.
Question. - You are a partisan of the Ksatriya clan! As son of king Suddhodana, the Buddha was called
Siddhartha. It is out of [flattery] that you are decorating him with great names and that you call him
omniscient (sarvajnd). He is not an omniscient one.
Answer. - Not at all! Rather, it is you, maliciously, are jealous and slander the Buddha. The omniscient one
truly exists. Among all beings the Buddha is unequaled for his beauty (rupa), grace (prasdda) and
perfection (rjutva). By his characteristics (laksana), his qualities (guna) and his brilliance (dloka), he
surpasses all men (sarvanarottama). Humble people who saw his physical marks (kayalaksana) recognized
him to be omniscient (sarvajnd) and, a fortiori, the Great Man (mahapurusa).
Thus in the Fang nieoup'iyu king (Gopalakavadanasutra)^ '°, it is said:
The king of Mo k'ie t'o (Magadha), P'in p'o so lo, invited the Buddha and his five hundred disciples for
three months. The king required fresh milk (navamta ksira) and cream (sarpais-) to offer to the Buddha
and the assembly of monks (bhiksusamgha). He ordered the cow-herders (gopdlaka) to establish
themselves in the neighborhood and to bring fresh milk and cream every day. At the end of the three
months, the king, out of compassion for these cow-herders, said to them: "Come and see the Buddha, and
then you can go back and keep your herds." The cow-herders, while coming to the Buddha, talked to one
another along the way: "We have heard it said that the Buddha is omniscient (sarvajnd). We are lowly and
humble, how could we judge if he is really omniscient? The brahmins, who love cream, always come to
visit the cow-herders; they are friendly to us. Through them, the cow-herders have heard speak of all kinds
of works and brahmanical texts. They have spoken to us about the four Wei t'o (Vedas) and the knowledge
[73c] they contain: therapeutic (bhaisajya) and military arts (ksatradharma), astronomy (jyotisa),
2 ' ° The craft of cow-herding and in particular the eleven rules to be observed for the well-being of herds have been
described in almost identical terms by many texts. The documents can be classified into two groups: the
Via i ik I mil Ui G Uivadi
1) 11m Maha opdlai i uttai Utcsted by two Pali editions and four Chinese versions:
(i) Majjhima, I, p. 220-224 (tr. Chalmers, I, p. 157-159; Neumann, I, p. 514-523.
(ii) Anguttara,V, p. 347-353 (tr. Woodward, V, p. 224-227; Nyanatiloka, V, p. 514-518).
(iii) Chinese Samyukta: Tsa a an, T 99 (no. 1248), k. 47, p. 342.
(iv) Chinese Ekottara: Tseng yi a han,T 125, k. 46, p. 794.
(v) A single sutra iransl. by ICumarajiva under the title Fang nicou king. I 123, , p. 546.
(vi) A single sutra iransl. by Hiuan tsang under the title Y uan k'i king, T 124, , p. 547.
2) The Gopalaka idana d< clopmcnl oflln preceding utra liich has come down to us in Sanskrit fragments and two
Chinese collections:
(vii) Kalpanamanditika, cd. Liidcrs, p. 177-178
(viii) Ta tchouang yen louen king, T 201 (no, 61), k. 11, p. 316b-319a (tr. Huber, Sutrdlamkdra, p.308-313).
(ix) Ta tche tou louen, T 1509, k. 2, p. 73b-74c.
The translation of the eleven rules of the ox-herder present some difficulties. S. Levi has compared the Pali text v, ith the
Chinese versions no. iii, iv and viii (Asvaghosa, Le Sutrdlamkdra et ses sources, JA, July-Sept., 1908, p. 140-144). The
comparison of all these sources would take us too long, but here below we will give the Sanskrit and Pali text of the
eleven rules.
sacrificial rites (yajilci irnui) '\ i n , a), icai hin (/ «/ i In! li (coclyacll i) in brief, the
sixty-four arts (fa?/a) in use in the world. '" The son of Suddhodana (the Buddha) is wise and learned
(bahusruta); if he knows these things, we cannot object to him in any way. But he has not kept cows from
the time he was born [like we have]. We will ask him about the secrets of breeding. If he knows them, he is
truly omniscient."
While they were talking thus, they entered into the Tchou yuan t Venuv ana) and saw the rays of the Buddha
which lighted up the woods. They approached the Buddha and saw him seated under a tree; he was like a
golden mountain in size; like a butter-lamp, he shone with great brilliance; like molten gold, he spread a
golden light over the Venuvana. The cow-herders could not take their eyes off him; their hearts felt great
joy. They said to one another:
This lion of the Sakyas,
Is he omniscient or not?
When one sees him, one is forced to rejoice,
The investigation is already conclusive.
His rays of light are extremely luminous,
His aspect is noble and grave,
His physical marks majestic, his qualities perfect.
He is saluted by the name of Buddha.
His marks are quite evident
His power is complete,
His merits and his qualities are intertwined
Those who see him are compelled to love him.
A halo (yyomakd) surrounds his body.
Those who contemplate him cannot be surfeited.
If the omniscient one exists
He must necessarily possess these qualities.
All the paintings,
Jewelry, ornaments and images
That would try to imitate this wondrous body
Are unable to equal it.
2 '" These 64 worldly arts are enumerated in the Sulralamkara, tr. Huber, p. 311-312.
He can fulfill those who contemplate him
And cause them to find supreme happiness.
[74a]By seeing him, one has absolute conviction
That he is certainly omniscient.
Having thought thus, they greeted the Buddha and sat down. They asked him: "How many rules for the
cow-herder (gopdlaka) should be kept so that his herd (gogana) prospers (spdtfkr-), how many rules
should he neglect for his herd to decrease and lose its prosperity (yogaksema)!" The Buddha answered: "If
he observes eleven rules, the cow-herder is able to make his herd prosper (ekddasabhir angaih samnvdgato
gopdlako bhavyo goganam pariharitum spjdtikartum). What are these eleven rules?^°^ (1) He knows their
colors (rupam jdndti). (2) He knows the distinctive marks (laksandni jdndti). (3) He knows how to brush
them (dsdtikdh sdtayati). (4) He knows how to heal their wounds (vranam praticchddayati). (5) He knows
how to make smoke [for them] (dhumam kartd bhavati). (6) He knows the good paths (vithim jdndti). (7)
He knows what the herd needs (pitham jdndti). 281 (8) He knows the fords (tirtham jdndti) . (9) He knows
the good pasturs (gocar am jdndti) (10) He knows how to milk them (sdvasesadohT bhavati). (11) He
knows how to pay respect to the leaders of the herd (ye ca te rshablul gavciiii patayas tan atirekapujdya
pujayitd hoti). The cow-herder who observes these eleven rules can make his herd prosper. In the same
way, the bhiksu who knows eleven rules can make his good dharmas (kusaladharma) progress
(vaixlhayati).
(1) How does he know the colors? The cow-herder knows the black (krsna), white (avadmata) or mottled
colors [of his herd]. In the same way, the bhiksu knows that all matter is made up of the four great elements
(mahabhuta) or of matter derived from the four elements (iipclchlyariipa)?-"-
(2) How does he know the distinctive marks? The cow-herder knows the favorable and unfavorable marks.
When his animals mix with other herds, he recognizes them by these marks. In the same way, the bhiksu,
finding in someone the mark of good actions, recognizes him to be a wise person (pandita), finding in
someone else the mark of bad actions, recognizes him to be a fool (bclla).-"^
(3) How does he know how to brush them? The cow-herder brushes (sdtayati) them and destroys the
insects (dsdtikd) that drink the blood [of his animals] and aggravate their wounds. In the same way, the
2 °° I [Lamotte] have borrowed the Sanskrit equivalents of these 11 rules fiom tin 1 lpanamanditil i p 177. They
correspond exactly to the Pali text (Majjhima, !. p. 222; Ahguttara, V, p. 351; only the order differs: ( 1 ) rupannit hoti, ....
(ID... atirkapujaya ektipiijtiya pujeta hoti.
-"' Pi i i , , u Hi tiskrit, pi n I pi csents some difficulties. In Pali, pita means drink; and Buddhaghosa
(1'apaiica, 11, p. 259) comments on this rule by saying: gopalakena.... janaitabbam hoti. - In Sanskrit, pitha. which also
means 'water' or 'drink', can also mean "time' or 'epoch'. At least this is tin: meaning Kumarajiva gives the ｅxpression in
the various translations he has made of the Sutra of the cow-herders: T 123: He knows the cows that arc in heat (ngai
nieou). - T 291: He knows the rule thai makes the cows go into and out of rut. - T 1509: He knows what the herd needs.
2 ° 2 Cf. Ahguttara, V, p. 351: bhikkhu yam kind.... yathahhutani pa/aiiati.
283 Ibid., p. 351: bhikkhu kammalakkhano.... pajjanati.
bhiksu chases away the insects of perverse views that drink the blood of the roots of good (kusalamula)
and aggravate the wounds of the mind (cittavarana). When he has chased them away, there is safety
(yogaksema).
(4) How does he heal their wounds? The cow-herder, with the help of cloth (pata), herbs (trna) or leaves
(parna), heals the small stings caused by mosquitoes (masaka). Similarly, by means of the holy Dharma
(read yi tclicng fa. sadclhaiinena), the bhiksu heals the wounds inflicted by the six sensory pleasures. He
does not allow himself to be stung by these bad insects called desire (raga), hatred (dvesa) and ignorance
(mo/ia).
(5) Why does he know how to make smoke? [By making smoke, the cow-herder] drives away the
mosquitoes (masaka); seeing the smoke at a distance, the cows go towards his house. Similarly, the bhiksu
preaches the Dharma according to the teachings he has received (yathasruta)284 and drives away the
mosquitoes of the fetters (samyojana). By the smoke of their preaching (dharmadesana) they invite beings
to enter into the abode of the non-self (anatman), of the true nature (satyalaksana) and of emptiness
(sunya).
(6) How does he know the paths? He knows the the good paths to be used and the bad paths to be avoided
by the herds. In the same way, the bhiksu knows the eightfold noble path (aryastangika mdrgd) that leads
to nirvana; he avoids the bad paths of nihilism (uccheda) or eternalism (sasvata).
(7) How does he know the needs of the herd? The cow-herder acts in such a way that his animals multiply
and are not sick. In the same way the bhiksu, when the Dharma is preached to him, experiences the pure
joy of the Dharma (visuddhadharmaveda) and his roots of good (kusalamula) increase. 285
(8) How does he know the fords? The cow-herder knows the places easy of access, easy to cross, sheltered
from the waves (taranga) and from nasty insects (krmi). In the same way, the bhiksu goes to the wise
monks (bahusruta) and questions them on the Dharma. Preachers (dharmabhanaka) who know in advance
if the mind (citta) of their listeners is keen (ttksna) or dull (mrdu), if their passions (Mesa) are light or
heavy, [easily] lead them to good fords and have them cross safely (yogaksema). 286
(9) How does he know the pastures? The cow-herder knows the places sheltered from ferocious beasts like
tigers (vyaghra) and lions (simha) and nasty insects (krmi). Similarly the bhiksu knows the safety
(yogaksema) of the four foundations of mindfulness (smrtyupasthana) sheltered from the wild beasts that
are the passions (Mesa) and the evil maras. When he has penetrated there, he knows safety free of
unhappiness.
(10) How does he know how to milk them? It is because the cow (yatsa) loves her calf (vatsa) that she
gives it her mlk. Also when the cow-herder [refrains from depleting her completely] and leaves her some
milk, the cow is happy and the calf is not left thirsty. The owner of the herd and the cow-herder are both
II ul i i r t \ i tsain desitd hoti.
° 5 Ibid., p. 352: hhikkliu yatltagatappavedite.... pdmujjam. - According to Buddhaghosa (Papafica, I, p. ]
the ｅxpression dhammaveda is synonymous with joy (somanassa).
2 °" Ibid., p. 3s / ' ; ' in pativinodenti.
benefitted each day. Similarly, when the farmers (vaisya) and the lay people {avaddtavasana) give the
bhiksu garments (civara) and food (Shard), he knows how to stay within bounds (matra) and not deplete
them entirely. 287 Thus the generous patrons (ddnapati) are content, their faith (sraddhacitta) remains
intact, and the [monk] who enjoys their gifts {pratigrahaka) is not wearied [by their alms].
(1 1) How does he know how to pay respect to the leader of the herd? Specially designated big cows watch
over the herd. It is necessary to take care of them and watch that they do not get thin. The cow-herder gives
them oil (taila), decorates them rings (keyura, niska) and gives them an iron horn (ayahsrngd) as a sign. He
brushes them, flatters them and calls them [by their name]. In the same way, as is customary (yathayoga),
the bhiksu serves (satkaroti) and venerates (pujayati) the high individuals of the community (samgha) who
protect (palayanti) the Buddhadharma, conquer (abhibhavanti) the heretics (tirthika) and lead the eightfold
community to plant (avt i pai Ith eeds oi ;ood i tsalamfila).288
When the cow-herders heard these words, they had the following thought: "[Of all these rules] we
ourselves knew only three or four. Our masters themselves only know five or six. And so, hearing these
words of the Buddha, we cry out at the miracle (adbhuta). If the Buddha knows the craft of cow-herding,
he also knows everything else. He is truly omniscient (sarvajnd), there is no doubt about it."
This sutra has been recited here fully. By it, we know that the Omniscient one exists.
Question. - There cannot be an omniscient one in the world. Why? Because nobody has seen the
Omniscient one.
Answer. - That is not correct. Just because one cannot see something, one cannot say that it does not exist.
1 . A thing really exists, but since it is hidden (gudha), one does not see it. Thus the origin of the clan
(gotra) of a man, the weight (gurutva) of the Himalayas, the number of grains of sand of the Ganges
{gangdnadTvdlukdsamkhyd) really exist but one cannot cognize them.
2. A thing does not exist and, because it does not exist, one does not see it, for example, a second head
(dvitiya sirsaka) or a third hand (trtiya hasta); it is not because they are hidden that one does not see them.
Thus, because the Omniscient one is hidden, you do not see him; but nonetheless, he exists. Why is he
hidden? [Because those who ought to see him] do not possess the required four kinds of faith289, and their
minds are attached (abhinivisate) to error. It is because he is hidden to you that you do not see the
Omniscient one.
II i ! I ' / n patiggahandya.
2 °° Ibid., p. 353: bhikkuye te bhikkhu en hi) iccupa ulpati ^vic'eva raho ca.
2 °" These are the four types of faith that accompany the awareness of the Buddhist truths which are called
avetyapraswla: faith relating to the Buddha, the Dharma , the Samgha and the disciplines held by the saints (aryakantani
sflani). Cf. DIgha, III, p. 227; Majjima, I, p. 37, 46; II, 51; III, p. 253; Samyutta, II, p. 99; IV, p. 271, 304; V, p. 343, 409;
Ahguttara, I, p. 222; II, p. 56; III, p. 212, 332, 451; IV, p. 406; V, p. 183; Avadanasataka, II, p. 92; Madh. vrtti, p. 487;
Mahavyutpatti, no. 6823; Bodh. bhumi, p. 161, 327; Kosa, VI, p. 292; Kosavyakhya, p. 605.
Question. - There is no Omniscient one because the things that he must know (jneya) [to be omniscient] are
numberless. The dharmas are innumerable (apramdna) and infinite (ananta). If many men together cannot
know them, how could one single man know them? Therefore there is no Omniscient one.
[74c] Answer. - If the dharmas are innumerable, the wisdom (prajna) of the Buddha itself is immense
(ananta). It is like an envelope: if the letter is big, the envelope is large; if the letter is short, the envelope is
small.
Question. - The Buddha himself has preached the Buddhadharma, but he has not spoken about the other
sciences, medicine (bhaisajya), geography (bhugolavidyd), astronomy (jyotisa), arithmetic (ganana),
politics (mti), etc. If he is omniscient, why has he not spoken of all these sciences? Therefore we know that
he is not omniscient.
Answer. - 1 . He knows everything, but he talks about it when it is useful and does not talk about it when it
is useless. If he is questioned, he speaks; if he is not questioned, he says nothing.
2. Furthermore, he has spoken of everything in general (sa.mdsa.tah) as being of three types: (i) conditioned
phenomena (samskrtaclliarma), (ii) unconditioned phenomena (asi.niiskrtatJhi.uina), (iii) inexpressible
phenomena (avdeyadharma). These three categories include all the dharmas.
Question. - We know that the Buddha is not omniscient because he did not reply to fourteen difficult
questions.290 What are these fourteen difficult questions?
^ yu These fourteen difficult questions arc often referred to in scholasticism by the term "Fourteen reserved or non-defined
points" (catui ivvti \ tstiini) Ci Madh. vrtti, p. 446; Madh. avatara, p. 250-251 (tr. Lav. Museon, 1911, p. 297-298;
Kosa, V, p. 43. The Pali canon and the Chinese translation of thi '• I idh) im ig una I 1 26) list only ten reserved points. (1-
2) Sassato lt>kt>, asassatt) toko. (3-4) Aittava toko, aitatava toko. (5-6) Tain jivatri tain sariratri, ai'n'iain jivatn afn'iain
sanram. (7-10) Hoti tathagato param mat ma na it,, i tatl ;<•. o pa a t in mind, hoti ca na ca lion tt
t tt I in i nnuia, the most frequent, occurs in Di'gha, 1. p. 187-188:
Majjhima, I, p. 157, 426, 484; Samyutta III, p. 213-216; III, p. 258; IV, p. 280. 391-392; V, p. 418. The same formula is
repeated in Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 221), k. 60, p. 804b (corresponding to Majjhima, I, p. 426).
But most of lli' Chin i ikaya u ih id; famili i nJi ih< i fourl en point \ i ' ii' i il rule, when a Pali sutta
enumerates ten points only, the corresponding sulra in the Chinese Samyukta counts fourteen: Tsa a han, I 99 (no. 962),
k. 34, p. 245c (corresponds to Majjhima, I, p. 484); ibid., (no. 963), k. 34, p. 246 (corresponds to Samyutta, III, p. 258);
ibid., (no. 968), k. 34, p. 248c (corresponds to Ahguttara, V, p. 186); ibid., (no. 408), k. 16, p. 109a-b (corresponds to
Samyutta, V, p. 418). - The fourteen points arc also in the abridged version of the Chinese Samyukta, T 100 (no. 196), k.
10. p. 445a; (no. 202), k. 11, p. 448c. - The Chinese version of the DTrgha also has sixteen points by adding two
supplementary points to nos. 13 and 14 of the formula of fourteen points: Tch'ong a han, T 1 (no. 28), k. 17, p. Ilia
(corresponds to DIgha, I, p. 187-188). - As do all the treatises of scholasticism, the Mpps adopted the formula of fourteen
points. A few rare texts (DIgha, I, p. 16; III, p. 137; Majjhima, II, p. 233) modif; the fourteen point formula by adding
hi front of th ord lo Ih it ap] i hi tin h' I ci hi i oi n I h i in i /
loka, etc. - This modification has been adopted here by the Mpps. - [There is an aberrant formula in the Chinese version
of the Ekottara, Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 43, p. 784b: Does the self exist? Does it not exist? Does it both exist and not
exist? Is the world eternal? Is it non-eternal? Is the world finite? Is the world infinite? Is the soul the same thing as the
body? Is it different from the body'? Decs the Tathagata die? Docs he not die? Is there death? Is there no death'?]
(1-4) Are the world and the self eternal? Are they non-eternal? Are they both eternal and non-eternal? Are
they neither eternal nor non-eternal? (sasvato lokas catma ca. asdsvaio lokah carina ca, sasvatas
cdsdshvatah ca lokah catma ca, naiva sasvato ndsdsvatas ca lokah catma ca).
(5-9) Are the world and the self finite? Are they infinite? Are they both finite and infinite? Are they neither
finite nor infinite? (Antavdn lokas catma ha, anantavdn lokah catma ca, antavamh ca lokas catma ca,
naivdnantavdn ndnantavdms ca lokas catma ca).
(9-12) Does the Tathagata [or the saint freed from desire] exist after death? Does he not exist after death?
Does he both exist and not exist after death? Is it false that he both exists and does not exist after death?
(hhavati tathdgatah param maranan na bhavati tathdgatah param marandd hhavati ca na bhavati ca
tathdgatah param maranan nan a hhavati na na bhavati ca tathdgatah param marandt).
(13-14) Is the life -principle the same as the body? Is the life-principle different from the body? (SajTvas
tac chanram, anyojivo 'nyac charfram).
If the Buddha is omniscient, why did he not answer these fourteen difficult questions?
Answer. - 1. These questions are futile and that is why the Buddha did not answer them. The eternity
(sdsvata) of the dharmas is unnecessary (ayukta); their cessation (uccheda) is even more unnecessary. This
is why the Buddha did not answer. If it is asked how many liters of milk (ksira) is given by a cow's horn,
that is not a proper question and it is not necessary to answer it. Besides, the universe (lokadhdtu) has no
end (anavastha): like a chariot wheel (rathacakra), it has no beginning and no end (apurvdeara ma). 29 1
The Buddha always declined answering these questions and some Indianists have used this as an excuse to present him as
an agnostic. Some are even of the opinion thai his agnosticism conceals a total nihilism: i t" the Buddha refused to provide
a solution to the great problems that preoccupy humanity, it is because he had answered in the negative in petto, de La
Vallee Poussin, who h i I i 'i i f (he bl I i n in has put forth and discussed these interpretations in
his articl < ERE, I, p. 220 nd in in i 1 mi Paris, 1923, p. 85-129. Probably early Buddhism,
more preoccupied with asceticism than with metaphysics, did not ask these questions, but when they were raised in the
course of time, ii thoughl dicy could be evaded by condemning them as irrelevant and even dangerous under the pretexl
thai they were not directed towards the discipline of salvation.
2 "! The first point contains the answer to the first two series of questions: "Is the world eternal, etc.", "Is the world finite.
The first question should be rejected because it clashes with the condemnation of the viewpoints of eternalism
ii id nihilism ((/re / f Udana, | hi kec rii i ' in vadaini. -
The same text is given in the Tibetan Udanavarga XXXII, 40, p. 136: </ vo i / < brjod par byal -
Madh. vrtti, p. 530: Ye keel >hiksa\ ■> hhavena.... vibhave trsna ca.
The second question is also to be rejected because the world does not admit a limit and by that very fact avoids the
categories of finite and infinite.
[By 'world' (loka) the universe is meant here. But Kosa, IX, p. 267, tells us that, by loka, some mean the soul (atinaii).
others, transmigration (samsdra) 1
2. Furthermore, there is no advantage in answering these questions, but there is the disadvantage of leading
[the questioner] into error.292 The Buddha knows that these fourteen difficult points hide the four truths
(catur aryasatyd) and the true nature (satyalakshana) of the dharmas endlessly. If there are noxious insects
at a [75a] ford, people should not be invited to cross there. A place should be safe (yogaksema) and
without danger (anupadrava) so that people can be invited to cross.
3. Furthermore, some say that these questions can be understood only by the Omniscient one; since [other]
men cannot understand them, the Buddha does not reply. 293
4. Furthermore, some people call existent (sat) that which is non-existent (asat), and call non-existent that
which is existent. They are not 'omniscient'. The Omniscient one does not call non-existent that which
exists, does not call existent that which does not exist; he preaches only the true nature (satyalaksana) of
the dharmas. Why should he not be called omniscient? The sun (surya) does not create the mountains and
the valley nor does it create the plains, but it does illuminate everything uniformly. In the same way, the
Buddha does not make non-existent that which exists, does not make non-existent that which does not
exist. He always speaks the truth (satya) and the brilliance of his wisdom (prajnaloka) illuminates all the
dharmas. He is like a unique path (ekamdrga). When people ask the Buddha if the twelve-membered law
(pratityasamutpada) was created by the Buddha or by another, the Buddha answers: "I have not created the
twelve-membered law nor has anyone else created it. Whether Buddhas exist or do not exist, birth (jati) is
the cause and condition (hetupratyaya) of old age and death (jaramarana): that is the eternal and enduring
law. "294 The Buddha teaches that birth is the cause and condition of old age and death, and coming to the
end [of the causal chain], that ignorance (avidya) is the cause and condition of the formations (sumskdixi).
2 " 2 This second point concerns the fourth series of questions: "What is the nature of the life-principle?" The answer
depends on the intention of the questioner. Vacchagotta, who believes in the existence of the soul, receives an answer
different from Phagguna who disbelieves in it. See above.
293 Some Buddhists gladly confine themselves to 'the charcoal burner's faith' without trying to understand the mysteries.
CI'. Sarndhinirmocana, VII, 19, p. 200: Some beings do not understand the Buddhist formulas correctly; however, they
stick to it and are faithful to it. They say: "The sermons preached by the Lord are profound... Wc don't understand their
meaning... But the intellect of the Buddhas is profound, the nature of things is also profound. The Tathagata knows, we
don't know. The preaching of the Tathagata penetrates into each being according to their various levels of faith." -
Ratnaku 1 1 ■ «. 1 i iMm m1< imui iva, ] i i unhlui huddldi pmvartatata iti.
2 " 4 Later (k. 32, p. 298a), the Mpps will return to this surra and will indicate the reference to it: As is said in the Tsa a
han (Samyuktagama), a bhiksu asked the Buddha if the twelve inernbered law had beers made by the Buddha himself or
by someone else. The Buddha said to the bhiksu: "It is not I who made the twelve-membered law and nobody else has
made it. Whether Buddhas exist or do not exist this dh in I till i i th dharm thi b i n it h dh rm i
stable" (utpadad vd tathdgatdndm amitpadad vd tatliagataiuan stldtaiveyani dlianiiaijaiu dhannata dliarmasthititd). As a
result, that being, this is; by the production of that, this is produced., namely, the formations originate from ignorance:
from the formations consciousness originates, and so on up to: [from birth] originates old age, suffering and moaning,
sadness, grief and despair. This is the origin of this mass of suffering (yad uta asmin satfdam bhavati....
i I i \ l. Conversely, that not being, this is not: li >m th lion of tl ihi . in i Is
by the cessation of ignorance, the formations cease; by the cessation of the formations, i
5. Furthermore, to reply to the fourteen difficult questions would be to commit a fault. If you ask of what
type is the size or the physique of a son of a barren woman and a eunuch (vandhydpandakaputra)295, that
would not deserve an answer, for such a son does not exist.
6. Furthermore, these fourteen difficult questions are wrong views (mithyddrsti), are not realities (satya).
Now the Buddha is occupied only with realities. This is why he stops (sthdpayati) and does not answer.
7. Finally, to be silent and not answer is an answer. There are four ways of answering (vydkarana): (i)
answering in a categorical way ( kdi na vydkarana): [this is how he answers when it concerns], for
example, the Buddha, the absolute (parama), nirvana and salvation (yogaksema); (ii) answering by
distinguishing (vihliajyavydkarana); (iii) answering by asking a question (pariprcchdvydkarana); (iv)
answering by not replying (sthdpamyavydkarana). Here the Buddha answers by not replying. 296
You say that there is no omniscient one! Such a statement is absurd and consitutes a serious falsehood
(mrsdvdda). In fact, the Omniscient one exists. Why? Because he has attained the ten powers (bala), he
knows what is possible (sthdna) and what is impossible (asthdna), he knows the causes and conditions
(hetupratyaya) and the retribution of actions (karmavipdka), he knows the samadhis and the deliverances
(vimoksa), he knows the good or bad faculties of beings (sattvendriyavardvara), he knows the various
kinds of deliverances from desire (ndndvidhardganirmoksa), he knows the innumerable lineages (sing, 38
and 5) of all the types of univei i nd\ h , "< i >otia), he knows all the abodes
(vihdra) and their paths (mdrga); he knows the conduct (caryd) and the thoughts (manasikdra) [of beings]
in their previous existences (purvajanma), he has acquired the discrimination of the divine eye
(divyacaksurvyakti), he knows the cessation of all the impurities (sarvdsravaksaya), he distinguishes
[by the cessation of birth] old age am! death, suffering and moaning, sadness, grief and despair cease. This is
of all this mass of suffering {tatravidyanirodhat ,,,,, nirodho bhavati)."
This sulra, which is absent in the Pali Samyuttanikaya, lias its exact correpondent in the Chinese Samyuktagama (Tsa a
han, T 99 (no. 299), k. 12, p. 85b-c) which situates it at Kiu-lieou-cheou Tiao-nieou-tsiu-lo (Kurusu
ICalmasadamyanigama). This sutra has nothing new in it except its beginning, where the Buddha affirms that the
pratityasamutpada has not been made by him or by any other person; the rest is an accumulation of stock phrases
lie 1 1 Iii i ' ii nonical scriptui ih Ii nd mskrit. 1 1 ll-kn n i inn i /
... occurs with several variations in Samyutta, II, p. 25 (cf. Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 296), k. 12, p. 84b); Anguttara, I, p. 286;
Visuddhimagga, p. 518; Salistambasutra in Lav., Theorie des douze causes, Gand, 1913, p. 73; Astasahasrika, p. 274;
Lankavatara, p. 143; Kosavyakhya, p. 293; Madh. vrtti, p. 40; Panjika, p. 599; Siksasamuccaya, p. 14. DasabhCimika, p.
65. - L. de La Vallee Poussin (o.c, p. 109) also has found it in brahmanical sources: Bhamatl ad II, 2, 19; Tantra\ artitika
(BSS,p. 163).
2 " 5 on this comparison, see above.
^" These four ways of answei inj i qu ion I av) id) at menti tied n Di ha III p Anguttara, I, p. 197;
Milinda, p. 144; Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 8, p. 51bl; Tchong a han, T 26, k. 29, p. 609a. These texts distinguish
i \ t i i \ vyakaran < pucch i >, tliapaiiiyo iho The Sanskrit text
reproduced here is taken from the .Ylahav\ utpatti, no. 1658-1661. - Definitions and examples in Kosa, V, p. 44-47.
NOTE: The lengthy Pali and Sanskrit quotations have been abbreviated.
clearly between good (subha) and bad, he preaches a supreme doctrine (agradharma) in all the universes,
he has acquired the taste of ambrosia (amrtarasd), he has found the middle path {madhyamd pratipad), he
knows the true nature of all conditioned (samskrta) or unconditioned (asamskrta) dharmas, he has rejected
forever all desire of the three worlds (trailokyardga). It is for these reasons that the Buddha is omniscient.
[75b] So be it! The Omniscient one exists, but who is it?
Answer. - It is the supreme one (parama), the Great Man (malitipiiritsa), the one who is venerated in the
three worlds (tixiilokyajyestha): he is called Buddha.
Thus the Tsanfo kie (Buddhastotragatha) say:
First-born (murdhaja) and king cakravartin,
The Buddha is like the light of the sun and moon.
He belongs to the noble line of the Sakyas
He is the crown prince of king Suddhodana.
At the moment of his birth, he moved three thousand Sumerus and stirred up the water of the ocean.
In order to destroy old age, sickness and death,
Out of compassion, he came to the world.
At his birth, he took seven steps,
His rays filled the ten directions.
He gazed four times and uttered a great cry:
"My births", he cried, "are finished."
Having become Buddha, I will preach a marvelous doctrine
I will beat the drum of the Dharma loudly,
By that I will awaken beings
And the world out of the sleep of ignorance."
In many forms, such were the miracles (adbhuta) that appeared.
Gods and men,
Seeing them, rejoiced.
The Buddha had a body adorned with the marks.
A great light shone on his face.
All men and women
Could not get enough of seeing him.
When the child was nursed and fed,
His strength surpassed that of a nayuta of gcnulhahastin.
The power of his rddhipada was extreme,
That of his, praj fid immense.
The great rays of the Buddha
Illuminated his body outwardly.
In the midst of his rays, the Buddha
Was like the moon in its splendor.
The Buddha was criticized in many ways,
He experienced no sorrow from that;
The Buddha was praised in many ways,
He experienced no joy from that.
His great maitn is extended to all,
Enemies and friends alike, without distinction.
All classes of intelligent beings
Know all the effects of that.
By the power of his ksdnti, lajjd, maitn and karund,
He conquers the whole world.
In order to save beings,
From age to age, he accepts the effort and the pain.
His mind is always concentrated
on doing good for beings.
He has the ten powers {bald) of knowledge (Jndna)
And the four fearlessnesses iyaisdradyd).
He possesses the eighteen special (dvenika) attributes
And a treasury of immense qualities (guna).
Such are the innumerable
Powers of his prodigious qualities.
Like a fearless lion
He destroys the heretical systems,
[75c] He turns the peerless wheel of Dharma,
He saves and delivers the threefold world.
t. The meaning (artha) of this word is immense (apramdna) and if one wanted to
explain it fully, other points would have to be neglected. This is why we have spoken of it in general
(samasatah).
CHAPTER V: RAJAGRHA
Sutra: The Buddha was dwelling in the city of Rajagrha (rdjagrhe viharati sma).
Sastra: This phrase must be explained now.
Question. - Why is it said that the Buddha was dwelling at Rajagrha instead of describing the teachings of
the Prajnaparamita directly?
Answer. - The author mentions the place (desa), the time (kdla) and the individuals (pudgala) so that
people will trust (sraddha) his story.
VIHARA
What is meant by dwelling?
1. The four bodily positions {iryapathdy- . sitting (ntiadana), lying (sayya), walking (gamana) and
standing (sthdna) are called dwelling. The Buddha takes up these positions to frighten Mara's troops
(marasena) and so that his disciples will rejoice (pramodante) and enter into all kinds of dhydnas.
2. Furthermore, there are three dwellings: divine abodes (divyavihara), the abode of Brahma
(brdhmavihdra) and the abode of the saints (aryavihara). 9°
The divine abodes are the abodes of the six classes of the gods of desire (kdmadeva).
The brahmaviharas are the abodes of the Brahma gods, etc., up to the gods who are neither with nor
without perception (naivasamjilcinciscinijilciyciicinadcra).
The abodes of the saints are the abodes of the Buddhas, the pratyekabuddhas and the arhats.
Of these three types of abodes, the Buddha chooses the aryavihara. But [here], out of compassion
(anukampa) foi being! | attva) he abides in the city of Rajagrha.
3. Furthermore, three things, generosity (ddna), discipline (sila) and good thoughts (kusalacitta) constitute
the divyavihara.
[76a] The four limitless minds (apramanacitta): loving-kindness (maitri), compassion (karuna), joy
(mudita) and equanimity (upeksa) constitute the brahmaviharas.
The three samddhis, namely, emptiness (sunyata) ignli m . ! /, imitta) and wishlessness (apranihita)
are called aryavihara. The Buddha dwells in the aryaviharas.
2 "' on the four irydpathas, see, e.g., Samyutta, V, p. 78; Di\ yavadai 1( /
cankramyate tisr ula i kai i
^■"° DIgha, III, p. 220: Tayo vihdra: dibbo vihdro, Brahmuviharo, ariyo vihdro.
4. Finally, there are four kinds of abodes: diryarilidiu, hrclhmcivihclrci, clryavihclrci and huddhavihdra."
We have already spoken about the first three. As for the buddhavihdras, these are the innumerable
samddhis such as the heroic walk (suramgama), the ten powers (bald), the four fearlessnesses
(vaisaradya), the eighteen special attributes (avenikadharma) of the Buddha, omniscience (sarvajndna)
and wisdoms (prajna) of all kinds. It is also the 84,000 baskets of the Dharma (dharmapitaka), the means
of saving men.™" These various Buddha-qualities are the places inhabited by the Buddha: the Buddha
abides there.
The brief description of the viharas is finished.
RAJAGRHA
Question. - The great cities such as Cho p'o t'i (Sravasff), Kia p'i lo p'o (Kapilavastu) and Po lo nai
(VaranasT) are all royal residences (rdjagi ha). Why does this city alone bear the name of Rajagrha?
Answer.™! - 1. Some people give the following explanation: A king of Mo k'ie t'o (Magadha) had a son
who, although he had but a single head, had two faces and four arms. The people took this as a bad omen;
the king therefore cut off the baby's head and abandoned the body in the jungle (kantara). Li lo (LTla)
rejoined the two parts of the body and nursed the child with her own milk. In the course of time, he grew
up and became a man; his strength was so great that he was able to conquer the kings of other kingdoms;
he owned the whole world and took all the kings, in the number of 18,000 men, and estabished them in the
midst of five mountains;-'" 2 by means of his great power, he governed Yenfeou t'i (JambudvTpa). This is
why the inhabitants of JambudvTpa give these mountains the name 'City of the kings' residence'
(rajagrha). 303
2. Others say the following: In the city in which the king of Magadha lived, there were fires; each time the
city burned down, it was rebuilt. This happened seven times. The people of that country were overwhelmed
by the work imposed upon them. Saddened and fearful, the king assembled all the wise men (pandita) and
asked their advice. Some said that he should change the location of the city. The king therefore sought out
a place where he could settle; he saw these five mountains which formed an enclosure like a wall; he built
2yy Cf. Bodh. bhumi, p. 90: tatrci uiiyutuin i minim vihdra ity ucyate. - Same definition in Samgraha, p.
137.
300 This is the 80,000 or 84,000 dharmaskandhas taught in order to heal the four types of adepts: cf. Mahasamghika
Vinaya ( In I i [1 I Theragatha 1024; Sumangala, I, ] I \ >' i i ital II p 155; P'i p'o cha, T
1545, k. 74, p. 385; Kosa, I, p. 45-47.
301 In this paragraph Lamotte follows the translation of E. Chavannes, Cinq cents contes et apoplogues, 111, p. 285-290,
with a few modifications.
302 These five mountains were called in Pali Vebhara, Pandava, Vepulla, Gijjhakuta and Isigli. Cf. Majjhima, III, p. 68
(= Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 32, p. 723a); Suttanipata Comm., Ill, p. 285-290). But previously they bore another name.
-"'-' Same explanation in Suttanipata Comm., II, p. 413; Rajagrha is called thus because many kings, such as Vlandhata
and .Ylahago\ inda, lived (here.
his palace (rajakula) there and settled in the center of this place. This is why this place is called 'City of the
king's residence' (rajagrha)?^
3. Here is another explanation: In times past, there was in this kingdom a king called P'o seou (Vasu) who
renounced worldly things (lokadharmanirvinna), went forth from home (pravrajita) and became a recluse
(rsi). At that time, the brahmins who were still householders (grhasthabrdhmana) and the hermits who had
left the world (pravrajirarsi) had a debate. The grhastabrahmanas said: "According to the sacred texts, in
the offerings to the gods (devayajna), living beings must be killed and their flesh must be eaten
(mamsa).v5 The pravrajitarsis answered: "When sacrifices are made to the gods, living beings must not
be killed and their flesh should not be eaten."306 q^e debate went on betweeen them. The pravrajitarsis
said: "There is a great king here who has left the world to become a recluse. Would you trust (sraddhd)
him?" The grhasthabrahmanas replied that they would trust him, and the others said: "We will take this
man as arbitrator and tomorrow we will go to question him."
That same night, the grhastatabrahmanas went in advance to the hermit Vasu and, after having asked him
all the questions about customs, they said to him: "In [76b] tomorrow's discussion, you must help us."
Thus, the next day at dawn, at the beginning of the discussion, the pravrajitarsis asked the hermit Vasu: "In
the sacrifices to the gods, should or should one not kill living beings and eat their flesh?" The hermit Vasu
answered: "The rule of the brahmans is that living beings must be killed in sacrifices to the gods and their
flesh eaten." ->07 q^e pravrajitarsis replied: "According to your own judgment, should living beings be
killed and their flesh eaten or not?" The hermit Vasu answered: "As it is a matter of sacrifice to the gods,
304 This tradition is also related by Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 9, p. 923a (tr. Beal, II, p. 165-166): Frequent fires
ruplcd at ICusagi form capital of Ylagadha hich totally destroyed the cil dlcr ha\ ing l built . man lim king
I -in i . i i on in. idvici ' In ministei i u I in diet I nishi y inhabitant in hose house th in had broken out
iij it i m him to iluli i inti ill' i i the 'Cold Forest', used until then as a cemetery. A new fire having erupted
in his own palace, (he king abdicated in favor of his son Ajatasatru and withdrew into the Sitavana. His neighbor, the king
ol'Vaisali. judged the time to I propitiou toil id via idha l'i frontier prim forlil d th ita i quick! .ml
Bimbisara was (he main inhabitant, the new city was called the City of the king (Rajagrha). - The old city, which Hiuan
tsang called ICusagra because of its excellent vegetation, is better known b\ (he name Girivraja (Vimanavatthu Comm., p.
82). It is also called Vasumatl (Ramayana, I, 7, 32). Barhadrapura (.Vlahabharata, II, 24, 44), Bimbisarapun and
.Vlagadhapura (Suttanipata Comm., II, p. 584). - Hiuan tsang (1. c.) and Fa hien in his Account of the Buddhist Kingdoms
hi L i Mi! p. 49) II another tradition attributin ic founding of Rajagrha to jata ru
305 Saiikhayana, II, 16, 1 permits the killing oi animals on the occasion of the ceremony of reception of a host
(inadhuparka) [according to Monier Williams, inadhuparka is an offering of honey and milk] or of an offering of soma io
the gods. In other cases, the killing of animals is prohibited.
30 " on the prohibition of meat in the Vinayas, see the note by P. Demicv ill inBei niste, i i u p 189, n. 1.
-W7 nj t was an aj-gmngjjt f the brahmins that one has the right to kill living beings for sacrifice because the animals thus
burned are reborn in the heavens. In the Mo tcng k'ic king (T 1300) where there is a strange discussion on the equality of
die castes, this argument is easi in the teeth of the brahmins: they should see thai, in fact, if their claim is true, they ought
to be all the more eager to sacrifice themselves or those dear to them since the bliss of the devas would thus be assured for
them or their dear ones. For an analogous argumentation, see Sutralamkara, story 24: Transl. Huber, p. 125-131."
(Chav amies, Contes, IV, p. 241)
one should kill living beings and eat their flesh; indeed, these living beings, having died in sacrifice to the
gods, will be able to be reborn in the heavens."
The pravrajitarsis exclaimed: "You are greatly mistaken! Your words are untruthful (mrisavuda)\" and they
spat upon him, saying: "Criminal, disappear!" Immediately the hermit Vasu sank into the earth up to his
ankles (gulpha) because he had been the first to open the door to great sins (mahapatti). The pravrajitarsis
said to him: "You should speak the truth; if you persist in lying, your whole body will sink into the earth."
The hermit Vasu answered: "I know that it is not a sin to kill sheep (edaka) and eat their meat when it is
done for the gods." Immediately he sank into the earth as far as his knees (jdnu). In this way, he
disappeared gradually as far as his thighs (kati), then up to his neck (kantha). The pravrajitarsis said: "Now
your deceitful speech has received its punishment in this world. If, however, you decide to speak the truth,
even though you are under the ground, we can pull you out and allow you to escape from punishment."
Then Vasu thought thus: "As a noble person, I should not say two different things. Besides, in the Wei t'o
(Veda) of the brahmans, the sacrifices to the gods are made in all kinds of different ways. If I myself die,
would that be worthwhile?" Then he said singlemindedly (ekacittena): "In the sacrifices to the gods, it is
not a sin to kill living beings and eat their flesh." The pravrajitarsis shouted: "You are a hardened sinner!
Then disappear completely, we don't want to see any more of you." Then he was swallowed up completely
by the earth. From that time until today, the rule given by the recluse Vasu has always been observed:
When a sheep is killed in the sacrifices to the gods, at the moment when the knife descends on the animal,
one says to it: "Vasu is killing you. "30°
Vasu's son was called Kouang tcho (Vipularatha?). He succeeded his father as king. In turn, he also
renounced worldly things but he did not become a monk (pravrajita). Then he thought: "My father, the
former king, was swallowed alive by the earth even though he had gone forth from home; if I continue to
rule the world, I might render myself guilty of a great sin again. Where then should I go? "At the moment
■^° The Ta fang teng t'o lo ni king, T 1339, k. 1, p. 644, gives quite a different version of this story which the Hobogirin,
Baso, p. 58 summarizes in these words: At the time when the Buddha was dwelling in in ita hi iven, Vasu va thi hi id
of 6,2000,000 merchants whom he was taking to sea to search for jewels. on their return, the fleet was assailed by the
makaras, waves, wind and the yaksas. Each of She merchants promised Mahesvara to sacrifice a being and in this way
they avoided these four dangers. on '.heir return, they w anted to go to the temple to fulfill their vow; but on the way, Vasu
reproached them for being part)' to such an evil practice and proposed to save the sheep. To this end, he produced by
metamorphosis a brahmin and a monk: the brahmin set himself ai the head of the merchants; he was questioned by the
,n i 1 ii i n i ii ! liin ii mmittii i in by 1 illin bi ii ih lebad is bi m hi be fori i n liin ell hanged into i
ii isn ri in uli (I -hi monl ho a cried Ih it I \ in il m< I lood icrifio i illn i ill in ; tin ; to heaven, on 1 ill into
hell: "You will see that for ,yourself, cried the monk, and at these words, Vasu fell into hell alive. Frightened, the
merchants released the sheep and all became seers; in their subsequent lifetime they were born in Sravastl where the
Buddha converted them. As for Vasu, he was drawn out of hell by the luminous power of the Buddha Houa-tsiu 'Flower-
Collection' coming from the east. Vasu went to pay homage to the Buddha with thi inn rmi i il li bi in whom he had
converted in the hells. To Sariputra, who was astonished al having previously heard il said by the Buddha himself thai
Vasu had been condemned to remain in hell forever, the Buddha replied thai such a belief is false; and he added various
interpretations of the name Vasu, all tending to prove his non-infernal nature: va means 'heaven', su means 'wisdom'; a
being who possesses heavenly wisdom cannot be infernal.
he had this thought, he heard in the air a voice that said to him: "If, as you travel, you see an extraordinary
(adbhuta) place that is hard (durlabha) to reach, you should establish your home there." When these words
had been spoken, the voice was silent. A little later, having gone out into the country to hunt, the king saw
a deer (mrga) that fled as swift as the wind; he ran after it but was unable to reach it. As he pursued it
without resting, the members of his [76c] retinue were able to stay with him. In front of him he saw a place
where five mountains formed a steep and well-sheltered basin; the ground there was level and produced
fine soft grass; beautiful flowers covered the earth; there were forests of all kinds of perfumed trees which
bore flowers and fruits in abundance; hot springs (usnotlaka) and cold pools (sitadagd) everywhere
presented their purity; this was a marvelous place. on all sides there grew celestial flowers (divyapuspa)
with heavenly perfumes (divyagandha) and celestial music (divyaturya) was heard. When the gandharva
musicians saw the king, they all withdrew. [The king thought]: "This place is extraordinary (adbhuta) and
nobody has ever seen its like (apurvadrstd). This is where I should establish my residence." When he had
thought thus, all his ministers and his officials who had been following him arrived. The king declared:
"The voice that I heard in the air told me: 'If you see on your journey an extraordinary place that is difficult
to find, that is where you must establish your residence. Now I have just discovered this extraordinary
place; it is here that I must establish my residence." Then he abandoned the city where he had lived
previously and settled in these mountains. This was the first king to become established there and starting
with him, his successors, one after the other, lived there. Since this king first had a palace built there,
thence came the name 'City of the royal residence.'
The explanation of the origins of Rajagrha in summary is finished.
GRDHRAKUTAPARVATA
Sutra: [The Buddha was dwelling] on the K'i cho kiue chan (Grdhrakutaparvata), the Vulture Peak
mountain.
Sastra: Grdhra means vulture and kuta means peak.
Question. - Why is it called Vulture Peak mountain?
Answer. - 1. The summit of this mountain resembles a vulture and the inhabitants of Rajagrha, because of
this resemblance, agreed to call it Vulture Peak mountain. This is why it is called Grdhrakutaparvata.
2. Furthermore, south of Rajagrha, in the Che t'o lin (STtavana), there were many corpses;-'"" vultures
commonly came to devour them and then went to perch on the peak of the [nearby] mountain.^!" The
3uy Above, wc saw thai Ihc Sitavana served as a cemetery of Kusagra, the old city. This detail has been confirmed by the
Di\ yavadana, p. 264, 268. Going (here one day. Anathapindika was seized by fear (Vinaya, II, p. 155).
■' 10 The twofold explanation given here is repeated in many places by Buddhaghosa, e.g., Papanca, II, p. 63: tassa
pabbatassa gijjhasadisam.... ti vuccati.
people then named it Vulture Peak mountain. H It is the highest of the five montains [of Rajagrha]. It
abounds in precious forests and waters. The aryas live there.
THE BUDDHA'S FREQUENT SOJOURNS IN RAJAGRHA AND
SRAVASTI
Question. - We have understood the meaning of Grdhrakutaparvata. Why does the Buddha dwell at
Rajagrha? The custom of the Buddhas is to show their loving-kindness (maitri) towards all. It is like the
sun (surya) that illuminates everything (dravya); there is nothing that does not receive its light. But there
are great cities like:
Ngeou tche ni (Ujjayim),-' 12
Fou leou napo fan (Purnavardhana),-'13
The Grdhrakutaparvata was visited by Fa hien (Legge, p. 82-83) and by Hiuan tsang (Watters, II, p. 151).
Ciinningham (CAG1, p. 534) idcntifcs ii with the modern Sailagiri, two and a half miles north-west of the old city.
Ujjayini, in Pali Ujjenl, in Greek Ozene (Ptolemy, VII, i, v. 63; Periple of the Erythrean Sea. \ . 48), capital of Avanti,
situated at 77 degress E and 23 degrees N (Rh. D., Buddhist India, p. 40; CAGI, p. 560). Native city of several disciples
of the Buddha, it was visited by Hiuan tsang (Beal, II, p. 270; Watters, Travels, II, p. 250).
-'!-' Purnavardhana was a city and district of Bengal, the name of which is attested under different spellings;
a. The conui inskrit form is I ' i hi n i n Tibet m / u Bu ram sin
hphel (Mahavyutpatti, no. 4113). It is found in the Sumagadhavadana (Mitra, Nep. Buddh. lit., p. 237, 238) and the
Ylahavyutpatti, no. 4113). But it is the corresponding Prakrit form, Pundavardhana, that is most frequent both in the
Sanskrit texts and the Chinese transcriptions; cf. Divyavadana, p. 21, 402, 427; Mahamayurl in S. Levi, Ca ilogt ,
, mi ' «, p. 40., v. ') lanal ilpalata T II, p. 861, v. 4; Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1447, k. 1, p.
1053: A yu wang king. T 2043, k. ?. p. I40b9 (where Pundravardhana is transcribed as Fen t'opo t'o.
b. Hie Sanskrit form 1'unyarardhana 'Increase of merit' is attested by the Chinese translations Fou tscng ( I 13 and 9; 32
audi ii.i uma ulli idana, '1' 130, p ' I nd Tc , ' / i i >< ' 1 'J I 168) in \ i n km
T 2043, k. 3, p. 143M0. - The variant i ' i i> I 1 I ih 1 11 n inn ipti n
Fou nap'an to (57 and 2; 163 and 4; 75 and 10; 162 and 9) in A yu wang tchouan, T 2042, k. 2, p. 107b25.
Fen nap'o t'o na (18 and 2; 163 and 4; 38 and 8; 170 and 5; 163 and 4) in A yu wang king, T 2043, k 3, p. 143M6.
Pen nafa fan na (37 and 6; 163 and 4; 9 and 4; 57 and 12; 163 and 4) in Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 10, p. 927al5.
The Sanskrit fom I'u yard ana 'full gro Ih i rcpn cnted b\ tin folio in transcription ind ( hinese translations:
Fou leou napo fan (40 and 9; 75 and 11; 163 and 4; 157 and 5; 75 and 13) in Mpps, T 1509, k. 3, p. 76c22.
Fou leou napo fo na (40 and 9; 75 and 1 1; 163 and 4; 157 and 5; 170 and 5; 163 and 4) in Samyuktagama, T 99, k. 24, p.
170a2.
Ihe translation Man ton (85 and 11; 40 and 9) occurs in the Ekottaragama, T 125, k. 22, p. 660a5; the Sumagadhavadana,
T 128, p. 837cl4; and the A yu wang tchouan, T 2042, k. 2, p. 105cl.
According to the Divyavadana, p. 21 and the Ylulasarvastivadin Vinaya, 1 1447. k. 1. p. 1053a, Puijdravardliaiia marks
the eastern limit of the Madhyadt i b< md thai in Mi limn r land i " \t In ic the Buddhist discipline is more
tolerant and allows the use of baths and shoes. By contrast, according to the Pali sources, (Vinaya, I, p. 197; Jataka, 1. p.
A hi tch'o to lo (Ahicchatra),
49, etc.), the eastern Hi il f.Yladhyad i h ill i ' nil /. The latter inl rm li li mini I
by the Sarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1435, k. 25, p. 182a (tr. Chavanncs, Contcs, 11, p. 264-265! which comments: In the
region of the East, there is th ilia of /A; lo (38 and I ind 14 = [.Vlaha]sala) hosi urnamc i , < (9 and
li ad / I id I lang arc (he frontier kingdoms I ' rom tl idai i ! i II
p. 41 c kno li il , h ii' i ' n oi in ii.l in , / h i n i >i i l i i 'i mparing all (hi
inl rm n >n n i hum c I i nm i ith Kajangala. H r, such is not th in u n
who, in 638, visited western Bengal ( Irana) and eastern Bengal ( Pundnu ardhana and ICarnasuvarna), informs us in the Si
yu ki (T 2087, k. 10, p. 927a) that Pu i vardh a \va 600 li farther east than Kajangala (transcribed as K'ie tchou wou
k'i lo: 123 and 10; 75 and 2; 30 and 10; 113 and 4; 122 and 14), and that he had to cross the Ganges to get from one city
to the other. The pilgrim lingers over the description of Pundravardhana: the region was 4,000 li and the city more than 30
li. It had 20 Buddhist monasteries sheltering 3000 monks of both the Greater and Lesser Vehicles. It had about 100
temples consecrated to the gods and the Digambara Nirgrantha (Jains; were especial!) numerous (cf Heal. Buddhist
Records, II, p. 194-195; Watters, Travels, II, p. 184-185).
For a long time, archeologists have hesitated about the exact site of Pundnu ardhana: the) agreed on placing it in the
'Bengal Presidency', but proposed identifying it sometimes with (he modern district of Pabna (Cunnungham), sometimes
with the present Rangpur (P'crgusson). The discover) of an ancient inscription in Brahmi which mentions the gifts made
lo the Sadvargikas by the inhabitants of Pundranagara, has cleared all doubts: Pundnu ardhana is (he present Vlahasthan
Gad in the district of Bogra. [On thi nscirptioi >. 1 nuidh rkai LI \\ 2 p S3 Id m ;
Inscriptions found tit Mahasthan, Bogr District, IA, LXII, 1933, p. 177-178; B. M. Barua, The old Brahmi Inscription of
Mahasthan, IHQ, X, 1934, p. 57-66. - For a description of the site, see P. C. Sen, Pundravardhana - its Site, IHQ, IX,
1933, p. 722-735].
It is known from many texts that the Buddha, on the invitation of Sumagadha, the daughter of Anathapindada, came by
means of magic to Pundravardhana, where he found the arhat Pindola seated in a cave. on this occasion, the Buddha
described to his monks a former lifetime ol' Sumagadha: At the time of the Buddha Kasyapa, there lived Kancanamala,
daughter of Krkin, the king of Benares: to ward off lite bad effects of a wicket! thought of her father, she offered herself
as victim and submitted herself to the judgment of the Buddha Kasyapa. - This story is the object of the
uiiii idha idana (J f'illi ii > '< c du Fona icrit, Paris, 1941, p. 93, no. 156); the four Chinese translations
(T 125, k. 22, p. 660a-665b; T 128; T 129; T 130) have been studied by T. M. Tokiwai, Studien zum Sumagadhavadana,
Darmstadt, 1898. Numerous allusions lo (his avadana are found in the lexis: Divyavadana. p. 402: Tsa a han T 99, k. 24,
p. 170a; Ayu wang tchouan, T 2042, k. 2, p. 105c; A yu warm king, T 2043, K. 3, p. 140b (cf. Przyluski, Asoka, p. 266).
The same sources relate another incident that took place at Pundravardhana at the time of Asoka. The Nirgranthaputras
who, as we know from Hiuan tsang were numerous in Pundravardhana, had depicted images of the Buddha that showed
him pi i i mi n. n lit In rantha s. 'I I un< in i md in in m ofyal ind n i i in I them which, on
i in i I put U ili 'i I s 000 Nirgranthas. Cf. Divyavadana, p. 427; A yu wang tchouan, I 2042, k. 2, p. 107b; A yu
wang king, T 2043, k. 3, p. 143b (Przyluski, Ashoka, p. 278).
314 The Taisho texts has A Ian tch'o to lo (a70 and 5; 140 and 14; 159; 36 and 3; 122 and 14) which S. Levi, Alexandre et
Alexandrie duns les documents indiens, MSL, p. 418, n. 1, sees as Alexandria in Egypt. But the whole context indicates
that it is not a matter of foreign cities but cities in India which the Buddha may have visited bul where he did not reside
for a long time. If A Ian tch'o lo transcribes Alexandria, it is not a matter of Alexandria in Egypt but some other
Alexandria founded by the Macedonian conqueror during his expedition into India: Alexandria of Arie or Herat (Strabo,
Fou kia lop'o yo (Puskaravati). 5
XI, 524 sq; XV, 723; Pliny, Hist. Nat, Vi, 61, 93); Alexandria of Arachosia or Kandahar; most likely Alexandria of
Caucasia, i.e., of the Hindu-Kush (Arrien, Anabasis, III, 28. 4; IV, 22. 3; Diodorus of Sicily, XVII, 83; Quintus-Curcus,
il In ' ii II n i i i ill i ll| I radj (J. Hachkin
Paris, 1939, p. 4).
However, it is doubtful thai . i Ian tcho to lo transcribes Alexandria. The Han of China knew Alexandria in Lgypl under
the name of Li k'an (93 and 8; 177 and 3) or Li kien (93 nd 8; 177 nd 9); on this subject see P. Pelliot in TP, 1915, p. 690;
IA, 1921, p. 139. - on the other hand, the Alasanda of the Milindapanha (p. 82, 327, 333, 359) is transcribed in the
Chinese versions b\ Ihc three characters A II san (170 and 5; 140 and 6; 66 and 8) which implies an original Alesan (cf. P.
Dcmicvillc, Les versions chinoises du Milindapanha, p. 168, n. 2). All of this calls for further research, first of all to
verify the spelling of the name. In the oldest manuscripts, Tcmpyo Mss. (A.D. 729), etc tin cil i J< i nal d under the
ii 164 and 11 / hichimmed I I chatra. This doubt is lifted by the Fan fan yu, T 2130,
k. 8, p. 1038a9, which also transcribed A hi (30 and 9) tcho to lo, and, to avoid any confusion, adds the translation Che
san (142 and 3; 120 and 12), i.e., 'Serpent-parasol', in Sanskrit, Ahicchatra. This city is mentioned in the MahamayurT,
studied by S.Levi in IA, 1915, p. 19-138.
Ahicchatra, 'capital of northern Pahcala: today Ramnagar, near Aonla, in the BarailK district of Rohilkand; ii was pari of
the kingdom of Drupada, in Mahabharata (I, 5516). Ptolemy records the Adeisattroi (VII, 1, v. 71) and the city of
Adisdara (VII, 1, v. 53)' (S. Levi, o.c., p. 95). Hiuan (sang visited Wo hi chi fa lo: "Outside Ihc main city, there is a naga
pool beside which thre is a stflpa built by king Asoka. It is there that the Tathagata, while he was still in the world,
preached the Dharma for seven days for the benefit of a nagaraja." (Si yu ki, Y 2087, k. 4, p. 893a; tr. Beall, I, p. 200-201;
tiers, 1, p I 'iii,' luchci u ; ic du Pahcala ML 1, p. 145-153, compared this Buddhist story
of th in i 'in ,n brm tion iven to unnin ham I the brahmins of Rohilkhand: "They told a strange story of a
snake... An old tradition going back to the Mahabharata, has il that Drona, the conqueror o\ Pahcala, one day found Adi,
Ihc founder of the 'fort', asleep in a cradle formed by the hood of a cobra: his future elevation lo the throne was then
foretold: am! ii is this extraordinary occurrence ilial gave ihc city its name of Snake parasol." The same writer sees in the
form Ahicchatra Ihc product of a popular etymology and proposes to read Adicchatra, 'Parasol of Adi', based on the
reading Adhicchatra found in the List of Bra/inn Inscriptions of Liiders and on the varianl Adisatra, attested in a
manuscripl of Ptolemy (Paris, no. 4805). According to him, the naga, the appointed protector of Ahicchatra (cf
Divyavagana, p. 435 sq.), was represented on a coin from northcrm Pahcala show ing an individual hitherto unknown but
who is none ( Hi i han a man head ! n i ( i mini ham, Coi i India, pi. VI, no. 15; CHA, pi. V, no. 3). -
Bui the king of ihc snakes Ahicchatra is not linked indissoluble with Ihc city bearing his name. In the Dhammapadattha,
III, p. 241-247 (tr. Burlingamc, Legends, III, p. 63-67), he lives in a great mound of sand (mahdvdlukardsi) erected by
Aggidalta and his companions at the borders of the lands of the Aiiga-Magadhans raid She kingdom of the Kurus
i i / I \1 i II u 11 \ ill J III i > I I ii I 111 11 II ( n
convert them, upon nol being received by the latter, wanted to take possession of the sand mound inhabited by the snake,
* Iruggli oi ii d by hi magii il povvi i dog illana triumphed over Ihc snake and the next day, when Aggidalta and his
lin'iil i inn lo tin hill to ii iv hat had happened lo Moggallana lhc\ found him mm ■<; dv onl Vhicchata the nJi
king, set food around him and, spreading his hood to the size of a bell-tower, he held it above the head of the Elder
(nagaraja valukarasiin.... upati dharesi).
■' l5 Puskaravati (Prang, Carsadda and Rajar), capital of Gandhara, on the left bank of the Swat river. This is the
Poukelaitis, Pcukclaotis or Peukolaitis of the Greeeks (cf. P. Chantraine, in Arrien, L 'Inde, p. 24, n. 1). For the geography
All these great cities are populous and wealthy and nevertheless the Buddha did not reside there. *" Why
did he stay [so] often in the cities of Wang cho (Rajagrha)-' 1 ' and Cho p'o t'i (SravastT) 31 °? Although he
stayed sometimes at Po lo nai ( Varanasfr , at Kia p'i lo po (Kapilavastu)-' , at Tchan p'o (Campa)-' ,
at So tch'e to (Saketa)->22 5 a t Kin chan pi (KausambT)^^ a t Kieou leou (Kuru)-'24 ) e t c . ; nevertheless he
of Gandhara, refer to A. Foucher, Sur la geog a <l a: , line du G., BEFEO, I, 1901, p. 322; Notes si
Hiuan tsang en Afghanistan, in Etudes Asiatiques, 1923, I, p. 236; De Kapishi a PushkaravatT, BSOS, VI, 2, p. 341. -
i u 1 n n hid i >i!ii iii ' nting, on the obverse side, the goddess of the city with the inscription Pakhalavadi
dcvada: on the reverse side, the Indian bull \\ ill) the inscription TA Yl'OC, I sahhe. The goddess bears a mural crown and
holds a lotus in her right hand (cf CHI, p. 557 and pi. VI, 10). - Her temple was outside the city near the western gate
and, according to Hiuan tsang, her image worked miracles. See Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 2, p. 881a (tr. Beal, I, P. 109; Walters.
I, p. 214). - The Greek kings who succeeded at Puskaravaii identified her with Artemis, for coins of the Artemis type
(Indian bull) were struck by Artcmidor and Peukolaos. - Hiuan tsang (1. c.) venerated a great stupa north of the city
(according to Foucher, the mound of Bala-Hissar), built by Asoka on the place where the Buddha gave the gift of his
31" According to DIgha, II, p. 146, the six great cities at the time of the Buddha were Campa. Rajagrha, Sra\ asti, Sakcla,
ICausambi and \ aranasT. According to the Mpps, the Buddha stayed mainly in eight cities, especially in Rajagrha and
Sravasti.
31 ' Rajagrha, capital of Magadha (Bihar). She present Rajgir south of Patna. Its location has been definitively identified
and excavated by Marshall, AR Arch. Survey, 1905-1906, 1925-1926. See B. C. Law, Rajagrha in Ancient Literature,
M. Arch. Survey, no. 58, Delhi, 1938. - The Buddha stayed there during the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 17th and 20th varsa of his
ministry (Buddhavamsa Comm., p. 3).
31° Sravasti, capital of Kosala (Aoude), the present village of Saheih Maheth in U.P. Cf. Marshall, Excavations at Salict-
Mahet, AR Arch. Surv., 1907-1908, p. 82; 1910-191 1, p. 3; B. C. Law, Sravasti in Indian Literature, M. Arch. Surv., no.
50, Dalhi, 1935. - For the 45 varsas of his ministry, the Buddha spent 25 at Sravasti (See below, k. 9, p. 125c;
Buddhavamsa Comm., p. 3).
319 VaranasI or Kasi, on the central ' iangc ;. Ihc actual Benares. - It was at Benares in the Deer Park that the Buddha
preached his first sermon, die Dharinacakraprarartanasutra. iie returned (here several times afterwards (cf. Vinaya. 1, p.
189, 216, 289; Samyutta, I, p. 105; V, p. 406; Ahguttara, I, p. 110, 279; III, p. 392, 300). There he converted Yasa and
many outstanding people (Vinaya, I, p. 15).
3 20 Kapilavastu, in Nepal, principal city of the Sakya clan. Its location has been discovered near the village of Padcria,
two miles north of Bhavanpur. Cf. P. C. Mukh in (; tit itii in th< Tarai ' i I ',• n \ion oj I api a istu, AR Arch
Surv., 1901; V. A. Smith, Kapilavastu, in ERE, VII, p. 659. - The Buddha was born in the LumbinI park (Rumindel) east
of the city; he stayed there until his departure for enlightenment. He returned during the first year of his ministry and
made a large number of conversions (Ken pen chou... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 9, p. 143 sq; Rockhill, Life, p. 51 sq.; Feer,
Extraits, p. 50 sq.; Nidanakatha, p. 87 sq.). He returned again to pacify the conflict between Sakya and Koliya concerning
(lie Rohini river (Dhammapadattha, 111, p. 254), and during she punitive expedition of Vidudabha (Jataka, IV, p. 144 sq.).
J - :i Campa, capital of Anga (Bengal), the location of which is probably marked today by the two villages. Campanagara
and Campapura, near Bhagalpur (CAGI, p. 3). The Buddha visited there several times (Vinaya, I, p. 312; Samyutta, I, p.
195; Ahguttara, IV, p. 59, 168; V, p. 151, 189).
1 - Sakcta, a city in Kosala, near Ayodhya with which it may be confused. Its site has been identified w ilh the ruins of
Sukan Koy on the Sai, in the district of Unao of the present province of Aoude (Malasckera, II, p. 1086, It is the Sageda
of Ptolemy (VII, 1,71).
stayed most often at Rajagrha and Sravasti. How do we know that he stayed especially in these two places?
We see that the Buddhist sutras are mostly located at these two cities and rarely in another.^ 25
Answer. - 1. Although the great loving-kindness (mahamaitri) of the Buddha [77a] reaches all equally, the
great cities like UjjayinI, etc., are frontier-countries (pratyantajanapada). That is why the Buddha does not
reside there.
, 326
2. Moreover, criminals (mleccha) are numerous there and, as their roots of good are not ripe
(aparipakvakusalamuld), [the Buddha does not reside amonsgt them]. Thus some stanzas say:
The sun's rays shine equally [on all];
The mature flowers bloom at once,
But the flowers not yet in bloom
Do not necessarily open up.
In the same way, when the Buddha
Preaches the Dharma [to all] with the same feelings (samacitta) to all,
The roots of good that are already ripe blossom at once,
Those that are not so do not open up.
This is why the Bhagavat
Resides amongst those who show the three following qualities:
Keen knowledge (tiksnajnana), ripe roots of good Aparipakvakusalamula),
Reduced fetters (samyojana) and reduced afflictions (klesa).
3. Furthermore, it is out of gratitude that the Buddha frequently resides at Rajagrha and Sravasti.
Question. - Why is it out of gratitude that he often stays in these two cities?
3 2 -> Kausambl, capital of the Vatsas, today Kosam on the Jumna, 50 km. from Allahabad. It had several parks, Kukkuta
and Ghositarama, where the Buddha frequently stayed.
i ^ Kuru is a country rather than a city. It is one of the sixteen Ylahajanapadas listed in DTgha, II, p. 200; Ahguttara, I, p.
213, etc. The country corresponds to the districl of Thanasar, capital of tndraprastha, near the presenl city of Delhi
(CAGI,p. 379). In one of its villages. Kalmasadamya, the Buddha preached some of his most important sermons, such as
the Mahanidana and the Mahasatipatthanasutta.
J -' 1 Woodward, Kindred Sayings. V, p. XVIII, has determined that among all the sutras of the four Nikayas, 871 were
given at Sravasti, 9 in the Digha, 73 in the .Vlajjhima, 736 in the Samyutta, 54 in the Ahguttara.
■^" Buddhist texts frequently express their distrust towards the frontier lands. Cf. Karanaprajhapti in La\ .. Cosmoiogic, p.
335: "Why is the Bodhisattva not born among the barbarian thieves of the frontiers? The people of the frontiers lack
manners and doctrine: there would have been no common ground between the Bodhisattva and them." To live in a border-
1 i I i 1 ii iiii lifficnlt ( i li Idhadharma (Di'gh 111, p. 263-265: Ahguttara,
IV, p. 225-227).
Answer. - The kingdom of Kiao sa lo (Kosala) is the native land of the Buddha. This is why the Buddha
one day replied to king P'in p'o so lo (Bimbasara) with these stanzas:" '
There is a wondrous country
Situated on the borders of the Himavat;
Opulent and rich in various treasures,
It is called Kosala.
Being of the solar clan and Sakya family,
I was born in that place.
Filled with disgust with old age, sickness and death,
I have left home to search for Buddhahood.
4. Moreover, the leader of Kosala, king Pu sseu ni (Prasenajit), lived in the great city of SravastT, and the
Buddha, in his quality of king of Dharma (dharmardja) also lived in that city, for the two leaders should
live in the same place.
5. Furthermore, Kosala is the country of the birth-body (janmakaya) of the Buddha, and it is out of
gratitude that the Buddha often lives in SravastT.
Question. - If it is out of gratitude that he often lives in SravastT, why does he not often live also in
Kapilavastu, which is closer to his birth-pace?
Answer. - Among the Buddhas, clinging (bandhana) has been extinguished; there are not even traces
(vdsand) of it left. When he goes to visit his parents (bandhu), he feels no emotion (ndsti
327 These stanzas are taken from the story of the first meeting between king Bimbasara and the future Buddha when he
was still a wandering monk. The oldest Pali sources do not know this episode (cf. Thomas, Life, p. 69), bul ii is related in
Pabbajasutta of the Suttanipata, III, i, v. 405-424 (tr. Fausboll, SBE, X, p. 67; Chalmers, p. 100); Nidanakatha, p. 66;
Dhammapadattha, I, p. 85 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, I, p. 195); Mahavastu, II, p. 198-200; Lalitavistara, ch. XVI, p. 237-
243 (tr. Foucaux, p. 205-209); Buddhacarita, ch. X (tr. Johnson, p. 141-148); Fang kouang ta chouang yen king, T 187
(no. 16), k. 7, p. 578c-580a; Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190, k. 23, p. 758 (tr. Beal, Romantic Legend, p. 178-183); Tchong
hiu mo ho ti king, T 191, k. 5, p. 947c-948a; Fo so hing tsan, T 192 (no. 10), k. 3, p. 19-20; Ken pen chouo... p'o seng
che, T 1450, k. 4, p. 1 18b-l 19a (cf. Rockhill, Life, p. 27).
The stanzas cited here depart somew hat from the old tradition attested by the complete agreement bclw ecu the Suttanipata
and the Mahavastu:
uli mip ita, v. 4 I L'/iijai "'"/< iki kamc ahlupatthaya
Mahavastu, II, p. 199: Nijajanapada raja.... na kamam abhiprdrthaye.
"At the side of the Himavat, O king, there live a people endowed with wealth and energy, the inhabitants of Kosala. They
are of the sol u i in lim i Lkya by birth. From this family I have gone forth, having no attraction for the sense
pleasures."
I he i irn in'iulm ■ i in , of tin vlula ir livadin Vinaya arc in T 1450, k. 4, p. 118c-119a3.
nanatvasamjna). 1 " on the other hand, the majority of his Sakya disciples have not eliminated their desire
(avitdrdga) and, when they go home to their relatives, they feel attachment (sangacitta).
Question. - Why then does he not protect his disciples who are natives of SravastI [from these emotions]
but, on the contrary, often stays in SravastI?
Answer. - a. The disciples [native] to Kapilavastu were numerous. When the Buddha returned for the first
time to his own country, the [three] Kasyapa brothers as well as the thousand bhiksus who originally had
followed the brahmanical rule and practiced austerities in the mountains, had a sad appearance. King
(Suddhodana), the Buddha's father, seeing them, found that these monks were not looking bright enough.
Then the Bhagavat made a choice among the Sakya dignitaries and they were joined to the other less
vigorous monks. Their families sent a message to restrain them from becoming monastics. 2 " Some of
them, well-disposed, tasted the joy of the Path; others found no joy in it. [Thus] these Sakya monks [from
Kapilavastu] were not authorized to return to their [77b] native land, but this was not the case for the
disciples originally from Sravasff. This is why the Buddha often resided in SravastI but seldom in
Kapilavastu.
32° This absence of emotion is one of the eighteen special attributes (aveijikadlianiia) of the Buddha.
•*^" To interpret this episode which told here in a very concise way, refer to Sutralamkara, tr. Huber, p. 222: Shortly after
the Buddha had attained enlightenment, the Buddha converted Uruvilvakasyapa, his brothers and their followers, a
thousand in number. They freed themselves from the klcsas ami iheir hair fell out. [As Jatilas, they wore matted hair].
They accompanied the Sublime one to Kapilavastu as has been fully described in the Life of the Buddha. King
Suddhodana was converted and tamed, but the Sakyas were proud of their caste. As for the Buddha Bhagavat, one could
never grow weary of looking at him whose body was perfect, neither fat nor lean. But the brahmins and the others who
practiced mortificartion for a long time had become emaciated: inward!) they had intellect but outwardly they were very
ugly. They were in no condition to follow the Buddhist practices. At thai time, the king, the Buddha's father, had this
thought: "If 1 make the Sakyas enter into the religious life, they will be in a condition to follow the Buddha." Having
thought thus, he had the drum beaten and made this proclamation: "You would oblige mc by sending one man from each
family of the Sakyas to enter into the religious life." - See also the passage of the .Ylulasarvastivadin Vinaya translated by
Feer, Extraits, p. 62-63.
The first return of the Buddha to Kapilavastu, the city of his birth, is told in detail in Mahavastu, [II, p. 112-117; Ken pen
chouo... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 9, p. 143 sq. It is represented at SancT (Fouchei i oj i pi IX, 2) and on
ih bas-reliel if G u dh ira (fouchei irt G ; I , //<-, I, p. 459-464). Errors excepted, the Pali sources say nothing
of the edict issued by Suddhodana requiring each family to send one son and that the number of forced recruits rose to
five hundred: Mahavastu, III, p. I < / i / / / < i ini.skra i pruvnijyaya The
same edict is mentioned in the Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190, k 53 | ' K 1 1 (transl I.Ron ic 1 \ I h n
hiu mo ho ti king, T 191, k. 13, p. 974b; Ta tchouang yen louen king, T 201 (no. 47), k. 8, p. 299b; Ken pen chouo. ..p'o
seng che, T 1450, k. 9, p. 144b (cf. Rockhill, Life, p. 53). Hiuan tsang (Watters, Travels, II, p. 1 1) visited the place, near
Kapilavastu, where the Buddha admitted "eight princes and five hundred Shakyas" into the order. But it is probably
n ■ ii mi ui h i'i i Im i> .ii Mill K) kyas I >m thai i ih h princes along with the barber Upali, which
took place not at Kapilavastu but at Anupiya in the country of the Ylallas where the Buddha stayed for some time after
having left his natal city (Vinaya, 11. p. ! 80: Dhammapadattha, I, p. 133; IV, p. 127; Manoratha, I, p. 191).
b. Moreover, according to the rules of the anchorites (pravrajitadharma), it is forbidden to have access to
one's relatives, for attachment to relatives (bandhanga) is like a fire (tejas) or a snake (sarpd). If the
disciples of the brahmins staying at home {grhasthabrdhmana) are unable to dwell in their native land
during their training (siksa), what then can be said of the sramanas who have gone forth from their home
(pravrajitasramana)?
c. Furthermore, Kapilavastu is not as big as SravastT, which has 90,000 households.-'™ If the Buddha
stayed there only seldom, he could not have saved many people. This is why he stayed there often.
d. Furthermore, in Kapilavastu, the Buddha's native land, the inhabitants had practiced (carya) for a long
time, their roots of good were ripe (paripakvakusalamula) and their wisdom keen (tiksnaprajnd). The
Buddha stayed there only a short time to preach the Dharma. He did not have to stay there long and, once
his work of salvation was done, he went away. But at SravastT, some inhabitants had just started to practice,
others had practiced for a long time; among some, the roots of good were ripe, among others they were not;
some had sharp faculties {tiksnendriya), others did not. Many of them, by the study of treatises of all kinds,
had crushed their minds while trying to sharpen them and had entered into the stream of all kinds of wrong
views (ndndmithyddrstijdla); they had served all kinds of teachers (acdryci) and venerated all kinds of gods
(deva). People of mixed practice (misracarya) were numerous [amongst them]. This is why the Buddha
stayed among them for a long time.
If a physician (vaidya) who is caring for an ulcer (ganda, visphota) determines that the ulcer is already ripe
(paripakva), he breaks it open, extracts the pus (puya) and, having given a medication (bhaisajya), he goes
away. If the ulcer is not yet ripe, he stays for a long time to smear it with ointment (anjana). The Buddha
acts in the same way. If his disciples have roots of good that are ripe, he converts them by means of his
Dharma, then he goes elsewhere. But if the disciples whom he must save have unripe roots of good, he
must remain with them for a long time. If the Buddha appears in the world (prddurbhavati), it is precisely
to save beings and lead them to the element of nirvana (nirvdnadhdtu), to safety (yogaksema) and to the
blissful abodes (sukhavihdra). This is why he frequently resides in SravastT and rarely in Kapilavastu.
e. The Buddha attained supreme perfect enlightenment (uinttturu sumyuksumhoclhi) and look on
(samanvdgata) the dharmakdya in the kingdom of Mo k'ie t'o (Magadha) on the banks of the river Ni lien
cha (Nairanjana) in the village of Wou leou louo (Uruvilva). This is why he frequently resides in Rajagrha.
BUDDHA'S PREFERENCES FOR RAJAGRHA
Question. - Now we know the reasons why the Buddha often stayed in Rajagrha and SravastT. But of these
two cities, why did he reside more often in SravastT?
Answer. - 1. It is out of gratitude for the benefits of his native land that he stayed in SravastT frequently. All
beings think about their birthplace. A stanza says:
iiu See also below, k. 9, p. 125c. According to Buddhaghosa, Sravasti had 57,000 homes (Samantapasadika, III, p. 614)
and its population was 18 'crores' (Suttanipata Comm., I, p. 371).
All the teachers who teach (upadesacarya)
Are attached to the system that they know.
In the same way, every person loves his homeland.
Even having gone forth from home (pravrajita), they still want it.
It is to repay the benefits of the country of his dharmakaya that the Buddha often stays at Rajagrha. A
stanza says:
[77c] The Buddhas of the past and the future
And the Buddhas of the present
Honor (pujayanti) their dharmakaya
And pay homage (yandana) to it and venerate (gurukuru) it.
Since the dharmakaya prevails over the body of birth (janmakdya), il is at Rajagrha that the Buddha resides
more often.
2. Furthermore, [the Buddha stays more often at Rajagrha] because the Tso chan (caityas) and the Tsing
cho ( viharas) are more numerous there than elsewhere.
Thus Rajagrha has five viharas:
i. Tchouyuan (Venuvana)- 53 ,
■"i Actually Rajagrha had many other stopping places. Besides those cited here, the SItavana, the Ambavana of JTvaka,
(he I'ipphaliguha, the Uduml irikarama ili> Vloranivapa with il I'aribbajakarama tin tapodarama ili> Liiilu ii i tin
Maddakucchi, the Supatitthacctiya, She Pasanakadctiya, the Sumagadha pool (Sec Malasekera, s.v.).
The Venuvana, or Bamboo Park, was given to the Buddha by king Bimbasara (V inaya, I, p. 39 sq.; Kou k'iu hicn tsai yin
kouo king, T 189, k. 4, p. 651c; Tch'ou fen chouo king, T 489, k. 2, 767a; Sseu fen liu, T 1428, K. 33, p. 798b; Ken pen
chouo... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 8, p. 138b). - When he stayed at Venuvana, the Buddha settled by preference at
Kalaiulaka or ICaradakanivapa (cf. DTvya, p. 262, 143). According to some sources, this field was the property of a citizen
of Rajagrha called ICalandaka: he had made a gift of it to the heretics, but u illi the help of the yaksas, he later recovered it
and offered it to the Buddha (Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190, , k. 45, p. 860c-861b; Beal, Romantic Legend, p. 314-315;
Tchong pen k'i king, T 196,k. 1, p. 163b; Hiuan Isang, in Beal, II, p. 160 and Watters, Travels, II, p. 156). - A king fell
asleep in this field and, about to be bitten by a snake, awoke in time at the noise of a kalaiulaka (squirrel, jay or magpie).
Out of gratitude, he planted the field with bamboo so that th kalaiulaka h ing there would always have food (nivapa).
Hence (lie ｅxpression ICalandakanivapa. the commentaries on the Udana, I, p. 60, and on the Suttanipata. 11, p. 410, tell
the story without mentioning the name of the king. But we know from the Chinese sources that it was Bimbasara (I chony
hiu mo ho ti king, T 191, k. 11, p. 965b-c; Ken pen chouo... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 8, p. 137c-138b; Rockhill, Life, p.
43).
The Venuvana was an ideal place of retreat for the monks, "neither too far nor too close to the city, good for coming and
going, easy of access for those who wished to see the Buddha, not too busy during the day, sheltered from noise and
shouting during the night, isolated and concealed from people, auspicious lor meditation" ( Vinaya, !. p. 39: Vlajjhima. 111.
ii. Sa to pan na k'ieou ho (Saptaparnaguhap ,
iii. Yin t'o che lo k'ieou a (Indrasilagulia)"^,
iv. P'ip'o lo po 11011 ( Vaibharavana).
v. Sapo chou houen tche kia po p'o lo (Sarpasundaikapragbhara)-"4
The Venuvana is located on the flat plain.
There are not as many viharas in the other places:
a) At Sravasff there is a stopping-place called Tche houan tsing cho (Jetavanavihara).335 There is another
called Mo k'ie lo inou t'cu (M iramalrprasada) i Lit there is no third stopping -place.
p. 13; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 145), k. 36, p. 655b). It was surrounded by a wall eighteen cubits high with a gate and
towers (Samanata, III, p. 576; Suttanipata Comm., II, p. 419).
ii ^ The Vaibhara was one of the five mountains surrounding Rajagrha. At its foot was the Cave of Seven Leaves,
Saptaparnaguha, in Pali Sattapanniguha, where Ihc first Council was held. The Sanskrit leading Saptaparnaguha is
attested by the Mahavastu, I, p. 70, 1. 15.
■"3 Indrasalaguha, or more likely, lndrasailaguha. The reading, Indrasalagiihd ', 'Cave of the Indrasala [tree]', has, as
evidence, the Pali form. Indasalaguha, the inscription a! Barhut (2nd century B.C.) idasalaguhd, the inscription of
Tch'ang a han Tl, k. 10, p. 62cl, Yin t'o so to k'ou. - on the other hand, ihc reading liulrasailaguha, 'Indra's rock cave', is
attested by ihc Sanskrit fragments (Waldschmidt, Brue/istiieke, p. 61, n. 2), by the CIhim < <\ in < ri itit .i in I Ii in I ition
Yin t'o lo che che (Tchong a han, T 26, k. 33, p. 632c29), Yin t'o lo che lo kiu ho (Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 9, p.
( )25b-+), Che k'ou (Va hicn, in T 203, k. 6, p. 476a). According to Waldscnn ll >n 1 ill i rm i li ■ lil t i 'in propci
reading, and hidrasaila v\ould lie a faulty Sanskritization. Waldschmidt also mentions the reading 'Salahohle von
hidi il in / i ,i I i .ii i i i p 255, where the two variants saila and sola are
juxtaposed. This combined reading is probably a recent invention and was already known to Buddhaghosa who explained
thai Ihc cave was between two mountains and an indasdla tree grew at its entrance (Sumahgala, ill, p. 697: sa dvinnam
i hi) - When the Buddha was in this cave, Sakka i India ) came to ask him a series of quest ions
that are recorded in the ' ; irta. We have several versions: Sanskrit version in Waldschmidt, Hi i i hsttit a. p i8
113); Pali version in DIgha, II, p. 263-289; Chinese translations in Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 14), k. 10, p. 62b-66a; Tchong
a han, T 26 (no, 134), k. 33, p. 632c-638c; Ti che so wen king, T 15; Tsa pao tsang king, T 203 (no. 73), k. 6, p. 476a-
478b (tr. Chavannes, Contes, III, p. 53-69. - The Chinese pilgrims who visited this cave found fragments of the
Sakkapanhasutta engraved on the rock: Fa hien, p. 180; Walters, Travels, II, p. 173). - The visit of Indra has been
represented on (he monuments ai Barhut (Cunningham, Bliarlnit, pi. XX\ Hi. 4), at Sana (Pergusson, Tree and Serpent
Worship, pi. XI, XXIX, 1); at Bodhgaya (Coomarasamy, Bodhgayd, p;. XL VII, 1); at Gandhara (Pouchcr, An Greco-
houddhicpie, I, fig. 246, 247; Hallade, Composition plastique, pi. XXI, 127; XXIV, 140; at Mathura (Vogel, Mathura, pi.
LO, b; LIII b).
■" 4 Sarpasundikapragbhaia is a conjectural form. only the Pali reading is attested ' ■ iso ika, hhai I he Tsa a han,
T 99 (no. 252), k. 9, p. 60c, translated Che t'eou yen (142 and 5; 181 and 7; 46 and 29) or 'Slope of the Serpent's Head'. It
ili 1 i d in di -hi n ii | iU (I It II [i lit ii utta, IV, p. 40). According to Buddhaghosa
(Sarattha, II, p. 368) it was called thus because it resembled the hood of a snake (s< , , hai i
laddhandmam pabbharam).
b) In the region of P'o lo nai sseu (Varanasi), there is only one stopping-place, the vihara of Lou lin
i) called/,/ chep'an t'o na (Rsipatana).337
■"-" The Jetavana was offered to the Buddha by Anathapindada who had first bought it from its owned, Jeta, for the price
of its surface covered in pieces of gold. The story of the gift is in the Vinaya, II, p. 158 sq. (tr. Rh. D. - Oldenberg, III, p.
187-188); Wou fen liu. T 1421. k. 25, p. 167b; Sseu fen liu, T 1428, k. 50, p. 939b-c; Che song liu, T 1435, k. 34;, p.
244c; Ken pen chouo... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 8, p. 139c; Nidanakatha, p. 92-93. - It is represented at Sanci (north
lorana, left abutment), at Bharhut (Cunningham, Bharhut, pi. LV11), at Gandhara (T'ouchci \rt Grcco-ho hiquc, 1, fi
239). - The Buddha stayed there for nineteen varsas (Dhammapadatth i i I) inJ hen tin vh i matrpra id i
built, he stayed at Jetavana and at Mrgaramatrptasada alternately, spending the day at one and the night at the other
(Suttanipata Comm., I, p. 336). - The Jetavana was visited by Fa hien (tr. Giles, p. 31 sq.) and Hiuan i ing C i((< i
Travels, I, p. 382) who found it in ruins. - on the actual state of the site, see P. Vogci, Excavations at Sahct-Mahct, All
Arch. Surv., 1907-1908, p. 81 sq.
->-'" The monastery of .Ylrgaramatrprasada was built in the Purvarama, east of Sravasti by Visakha, daughtcr-in law of
Mrgara but her 'mother' in the Buddhadharma.
■" ' Rsipatana or Rsivadana, on the outskirts of Benares where the Deer Park (Mrgadava or Mrgadaya) is located. It is
there that all the Buddhas must give their first sermon (Sumangala, II, p. 424) and the Buddha preached the
Dharmacakrapravartanasutra lo the live monks (Vinaya, p. 8): ii is one of She lour great pilgrimage places, determined by
the Buddha (DIgha, II, p. 140).
In the texts the i i in > ion pi nation of tin crm K ipatana ! II of th i
i. According to Buddhaghosa (Manoratha, II, p. 180; Papanca, II, p. 188; Sarattha, III, p. 296), it is due to the fact that the
rsis (i.e., the Buddhas and Pratyckabuddhas) come down there (patana) to proclaim (heir Dharma and celebrate the
uposatlia (huddhapaccckahuddliasaiiikhatanarii ismani.... ti attlio).
ii. A legend has been invented (o explain lite term: .Ylahavastu, I, p. 357: "In a big forest half a yojana from Benares, there
lived 500 pratyekabuddhas. They entered into parinirvana after having each pronounced a stanza of the
i Ii i i ti i nil ( nil mi; la, \ I. Rising 14 into 'It in lli h in < d 110 ill (tcjodhatuiu 11 mil
entered into full parinirvana, In their own fire, (heir flesh and blood were consumed and their bodies fell to the ground." -
Lalitavistara, p. 18-219: "Near Benares, in the Mrgadava ai Rsiptana, five hundred pratyckabuddhas who lived there,
having heard the voice [announcing the conception of the Bodhisattva], rose up into the sky to the height of seven tal
Irccs and. having attained She region of 'fire like extinguished torches", entered inks full nirvana. Whatever bile, phlegm.
sinews, nerves, bones, flesh and blood they had disappeared, completely consumed by the fire; the pun- relics (sanrani)
alone fell to the ground. And because the rsis fell there in this way, from that time on this place was given the name of
Rsipatana" (tr. Foucaux, p. 20). The Lalitavistara precedes this legend with an identical story applied, not to 500
pratyekabuuddhas, but to one single one. (he pratyckabuddh 1 Vial ihga i .1 hien (tr. Legge, p. 94) reproduces the latter
version of the legend which he locates, not at the moment of the Buddha's conception, but seven days after his
enlightenment. - finally, the parinirvana of the 500 pratyckabuddhas and lite fall of their bodies are also told in the Fo
pen lung tsi king, T 190, k. 6, p. 677a (tr. Beal, Romantic Legend, p. 25-26). Luders, Bharhut 11. d. buddh. Literatur, p.
41-44, has identified this story on a relief at Bharhul (Cunningham, Bharhut, pi. XLII, 5). But apart from the reading
11 1 1 1I1 n ih 1 idi R 1 Face of the Rsi', for which no explanation, even legendary, has yet been
found. See Mahavastu, I, p. 43, 161, etc.; Divyavadana, p. 393, 464.
In the Rsipatana there was the Mrgadava 'Deer Park' or Mrgadaya 'Gift of the deer', which Hiuan tsang described
minutely in Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 7, p. 905b (tr. Beal, II, p. 45; Watters, II, p. 48); the precision of his information has been
brought to light by the series Excavations at Samath published by Marshall and Konow in AR Arch. Surv, 1904-1905.
c) At P'i ye li (Vaisali) there are two stopping-places: the first is called Mo ho p'an (Mahavana) and the
second Mi heou tch'e ngan (Markatahradatira).-'™
d) At Kieou chan mi (KausambT) there is a stopping-place called K'iu che lo yuan (Ghosilarama).339
In all these regions, there was either a stopping-place having a vihara or an empty (sitnya) forest. But
Rajagrha had many viharas suitable for meditators (dhyayin), and since these stopping-places were in safe
(yogaksema) areas, the Buddha stayed there frequently.
There is a legem! explaining Ihc name Ylrgadava: "Two Jeer- kings led a herd of 500 deer. one of these kings was (he
Bodhisattva. The king of the country wanted to go hunting, so the two deer-kings begged him on bended knees to be
content with two deer daily which they would send him for his kitchen. ! he agreement w as made, and it was the turn of a
pregnant hind to go to her death. Filled with compassion for her, the Bodhisattva, in the form of one of the deer kings,
presented himself in her place at the palace. The king of ihc country, ashamed to be less generous than a deer, forbade
hunting in his kingdom and gave Shi'; forest to the deer under the name 'Deer Park' " (Chavanncs). This legend occurs with
some variants in detail in Pali Jataka, I, p.145 sq.; Mahavastu, I, p. 359-366; Lieou tou tsi king, T 152 (no. 18), k. 3, p.
12bl3a (cf. Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 68-71); Ta tchouang yen louen king, Y 201 (no. 69), k. 14, p. 338a-339a (tr. Huber,
Sutralamkara, p. 41 1-416); Tsa p'i yu king, T 207 (no. 20), p. 527a (tr. Chavannes, Contes, II, p. 35-37); Hiuan tsang, Si
yu ki, T 2087, k. 7, p. 906a-b (tr. Beal, II, p. 50-51; Watters, II, p. 54-55).
338 Vaisali is the present-day Besarch on the Gandaki, in the district of Muzafferpur in Tirhut (Cf. V. Smith, JRAS, 1907,
p. 267; I. Marshall, AR Arch. Surv., 1903-1904). Its main monastery was the Kutagarasala 'Hall of the Belvedere",
described ai length in Sumaiigala, I, p. 310; Papanca, II, p. 267. But whweas the Pali lextx locale il in the Mahavana
"Large Forest". The Sanskrit texts place it on the Mai i , ho', ol the Monkey Pool". Thus, when a Pali suit;;
I n nil Ihc phrasi I i \ , d rn | omim m ' in uii i i ' no a I Ih
hincsc Agama) begins with Vai /rati inai i i tin. (Compai
e.g., Pali Samyutta, I, p. 29, with the Samskrit Samyukta in T 99 (no. 1274), k. 48, p. 359a, and T 100 (no. 272), k. 14, p.
290c, and T 100 (no. 34), k 2, p. 384b). The same indication .Vlarkatahradatirc is also found in the post-canonical (cms:
Mahavastu, I, p. 300;Divyavadana, p. 136, 200; Avadanasataka, 1, p. 8, 279. - However that may be, the Mpps says
nothing here ibou ih ICul irasal ol m n i .n onl Ih o] m Hi \ ihdvana the gieat toiest extendoing from
Vaisali to the Himalaya (Sumaiigala, i, p. 30')) and in the Markatahradatira. litis poo! is thus called because it had been
dug out by the Buddha for the monkeys. Hiuan tsang, who visited it (Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 7, p. 908b; tr. Beal, II, p. 68;
Watters, II, p. 65) tells us that to the south of the pool there is a srupa commemorating ihc offering of honey to the
Buddha by a monkey. This episode is told in the Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 32), k. 8, p. 471a; Ken pen chouo... yao che, T
1448, k. 18; Ken pen chouo... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 12, p. 163c; Mo ho seng k'i liu, T 1425, k. 29, p. 464a; Hien yu
king, T 202 (no. 54), k. 12, p. 420c-430c (cf. I. J Schmidt, Der Weise und der Thor, chap. XL, p. 347); A. Schiefher,
Tihctisclic Leheiisheschreihimg, p. 302. It is represented at Sanchl (Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship, pi. X, XII,
XXVI), at Bharhut (Cunningham, Bhdrhut, pi. XV and XXX), at Gandhara (Foucher, Art Greco-bouddhique, p. 1 , p. 5 1 3,
f. 254), and in Bepalses miniatures (Id., Iconographie bouddhique, pi. VII, X).
The Mpps also fails to mention the Ambalalivana given to the Buddha by the well-iknown courtesan, very close to
Vaisali (cf. Vinaya, I, p. 231-233; Fa hien, tr. Legge, p. 72; Hiuan tsang, tr. Beal, II, p. 68; Watters, II, p. 69).
33 ^ Ghosila (in PaLi Ghosaka) and the 500 ascetics of the Himavat whom he maintained had gone to Sravastl to invite
the Buddha. When the latter accepted their invitation, they buill dwellings at Kausambi to receive him and his monks.
The construction of Ghosila was called Ghosilarama, in Pali. Ghositararma. Cf. Dhammapadattha, I, p. 207-208 (tr.
Burlingame, Legends, I, p. 280); Papanca, II, p. 390.
3. Furthermore, at Rajagrha there were six heretic teachers, Fou na lo (PQrana), who claimed to be
omniscient (sarvajha) and were rivals of the Buddha. 340 There were also the brahmacarins Tch'ang chao
(Dfrghanakha), P'o ts'o sing (Vatsagotra), Kiu kia na ta (Kokanada), etc., all the great heretical teachers
(tfrthikamahopailesucurva) y Finally, there was the ayusmat Che li k'ou to (Sngupta). 2 f'i p'o ta to
(Devadatta), A cho die (Ajatasatru),343 e t c ; wno wished to harm the Buddha, did not believe in the
Buddhadharma and were filled with jealousy {Trsya).
[78a] Since these individuals were at Rajagrha, the Buddha often stayed there. In this way, near a place
where poisonous herbs (yisatrnd) grow, there must be a medicinal herb (osadhi). Some stanzas say:
If the lion (simha),
King of all the wild beasts,
Roars out against small insects (prdiiika),
340 For Pui-ana an( } the heretic techers, cf. B. C. Law, Six heretical Teachers in BS, III, p. 73-88; Barua, History ofPre-
Buddhisl Philosophy, Calcutta.
■"1 DTrganakha has already been mentioned. - The conversion of Vatsagotra is recounted in detail in the three
Vacchagottasuttas in (he Vlajjhima (no. 71-73), I, p. 481-497. The last two may be found in the Chinese Samyukta, Tsa a
han, T 99 (no. 962 and 964), k. 34, p. 245b sq. In the Samyukta, all these surras are located at Rajagrha, in the
ICalandakavcnuvana, which confirms the assertion of the Mpps according to which Vatsagotra lived in Rajagrha. on the
other hand, in the Pali .Vlajjhima, the related suttas on the same individual arc located respectively al Vaisali, Sravasti and
Rajagrha. - Kokanada is a parivrajaka who debated with Ananda on the eternity of the world and the other reserved
points. A Kokanadasntra has been discovered in central Asia by Griinwcdcl, published by R. Pischcl A ci i,
Sanskritkanons des Buddhisten aus Idykutsari TP, SPAW, XXV, 1904, p, 820. Very close, the Chinese version of Tsa a
han, T 99 (no. 967), k.34, p. 248b (cf. S. Levi, Le Samtyuktagama Sanscrit et lesfeuillets de Grunwedel, TP, 1904,p. 297-
309). The corresponding Pali sutta is in Ahguttara, V, p. 196.
' 4 - Sngupta, brother-in-law of Jyotiska and disciple of Purana. To avenge his teacher who had been ridiculed by
Jyotiska, he invited the Buddha and his monks to dine, prepared poisoned food, had a ditch dug filled with hidden fire and
threw his wife, Jyotiska's sister, into a dungeon. Disregarding the warnings of the devas, the Buddha accepted this
in\ itation. Under his feet, the fire-filled ditch was changed into a pool covered with lotuses. Sngupta freed his wife and
asked her to intercede for him with the Buddha, then he came himself and asked for pardon. The Buddha reassured him
and ordered the monks to chant the samprakyata which renders poisonous food harmless. Sngupta is well known to the
Sanskrit and Chinese sources: Avadanakalpalata, ch. VIII, (T i, p. 258-270); Tseng yi ahan T 125, k. 41, p. 773c; Ta
tchouang yen louen king, T 201 (no. 67), k. 13, p. 327c 333a (tr. Hubcr, Sutralamkara, p. 361 -386): To lion tchang tcho
king, T 545, vol. XIV, p. 840 sq. (Tibetan correspondent: Dpal sbas, Mdo XVI, 17; Csoma-Feer, p. 262; OKC, no. 883);
C he sung liu, T 1435, k. 61, p. 464b: Ken pen chouo... mou to kia, T 1452, analyzed fully by S. Levi, L ' uti lion id)
ses sources, JA, July-Aug. 1908, p. 154-158; Hiuan tsang (tr. Beal, II, p. 151; Watters, II p. 150); Yi tsing (tr. Takakusu,
p. 39). - In the Pali sources. Shigella is a lay devotee, filled w iih devotion to the Buddha and scorned by the Nirgrantha. It
is his friend Garahadinna who offers to the Buddha the poisoned food described above; cf. Dhammapadattha, I, p. 434-
447 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, II, p. 92-99); Milinda, p. 350.
i4i The traps laid for the Buddha by Devadatta and Ajatasatru are well known. It suffices here to refer to the handbooks:
Kern, Histoire, I, p. 186; Manual, p. 38; Thomas, Life of Buddha, p. 132; T. W. Rhys-Davids, Devadatta, in ERE, IV, p.
675-677.
He is laughed at by all.
If it is against the tigers (vydghra), wolves
And other ferocious beasts
That he roars so powerfully,
He is valued by the experts.
The teaching masters are like the ferocious tigers,
But, in their midst, [the Buddha] fears nothing.
These great sages have seen much, heard much (bahusruta).
But amongst them [the Buddha] is foremost.
Since these great sages (mahdpandita) and great learned one (bahusruta) live at Rajagrha, the Buddha
often stays there..
4. Furthermore, king P'inp'o so lo (Bimbasara) had gone to K'ieye sseu cho (Gayaslrsa) to see the Buddha
and his followers, the 1000 Kie fa (Jatilas) who [had become] arhats. Then the Buddha preached to the
king who attained the state of Siu t'o houan (srotaapanna, entry into the stream). After that, the king
invited the Buddha in these words: "I would like the Buddha and his community (samgha) to come to my
city of Rajagrha and accept, for their lifetime, the clothing (civara), leather (carman), food (dhdra), beds
and seats (say anas ana) and medicines (bhaisajya) that I will furnish for them." The Buddha accepted his
invitation and that is why he frequently resides at Rajagrha. 344
5. Furthermore, of the four directions (dis) in Yenfeou t'i (JambudvTpa), the easl (purva dik) is the foremost
because the sun rises there; next are the south (daksind dik), west (pascimd dik) and north (uttard dik). In
the west, the country of Magadha is the most powerful. In the country of Magadha, the city of Rajagrha is
the most powerful: it contains 120,000 households. After the Buddha's nirvana, king A cho che
(Ajatasatru), whose lineage had weakened, abandoned the great city of Rajagrha and built a small city one
yojana in size nearby called Po lo li fou to lo (Pataliputra). -> If the latter prevails over all the other cities,
what then should be said of Rajagrha?
■"4 For Bimbasara's invitation, sec above.
■"-> Pataliputra, presently I'atna, below the point where the Gandak from the north and the Sonc from the south flow into
the Ganges (L. A. Waddell, Discovery of the exact site of Pataliputra, Calcutta, 1892; AR, Arch Surv 1912-1913). - In
times gone by, the city was called Kusumapura or Puspapura "City of flowers' (Hiuan tsang, T 2087, k. 8, p. 910c;
Dipavamsa, XI. v. 28: .Ylahavamsa, IV, v. 31: Vlahabodhivamsa, p. 153; later it was called Pataliputra following the
wedding of a young brahmin w ilh a branch oi'piitala or begonia (Hiuan tsang, ibid., tr. Watters, II, p. 87). - Shortly before
hi I i! ih i IJh H hi ill nil 1 i m !> i hi mini rs ol | isatru unidha and Varsakara, built a
fortress to serve as defense against the Vrjis. The Buddha foretold the greatness of that city from that time on, but
declaring that it would be menaced by the threefold perils of fire, flood and disharmony. Escorted by the two ministers, he
6. Furthermore, at Rajagrha there are many intelligent people (medhdvin) learned and wise, which is not
the case in the other lands.
7. Furthermore, some men, before attaining the Path, wait for the time, the place and the wished-for
individual. The Buddha knows in advance that Che t'o houan yin (Sakradevendra) and 80,000 devas should
attain the Path at Magadha in the Rock Cave (sailaguha)?^ That is why he often stayed at Rajagrha.
8. Furthermore, this land is wealthy; when one begs for one's food, one obtains it easily. This is not the
case in the other lands. This wealth is the result of three causes:
i. King Bimbasara had given orders that food always be provided near his palace for 1000 bhiksus. 4 '
ii. Chou t'i k'ie (Jyotiska), born among humans, nevertheless possessed the wealth of a god. °
iii. A po lo lo (Apalala), king of the nagas, was converted because of a good thought (kusalacitta) and
became a disciple of the Buddha. To prevent famines (durbhiksa), he caused an unceasing beneficial rain
to fall. That is why this country is wealthy.- 54 "
went to the Ganges: the gate through which he left the city and the place where he crossed the Ganges received the names
of Gautamadvara 'Gautama's gate' and Gautamatirtha 'Gautama's lord' respective!} (Vinaya, I, p. 226-230; DIgha, 11, p.
84-89); Udana, VIII, 6, p. 85-90; Chinese versions of Mahaparinirvanasutra, T 1, k. 2, p. 12; T 5, p. 162b-c; T 6, p. 177c;
Ken pen chouo... tsa che, T 14, k. 36, p. 384c; Rockhill, Life, p. 127). - Pataliputra soon supplanted Rajagrha and became
h | i i i I i i In ndcr king Uda\ in or Udayibhadi n I jal rn t i n I f the Jain i ( la Ii
Rh. D. - Oldenberg, II, p. 102). In any case. .Ylunda, grandson of Ajatasatru, made Pataliputra his residence (Anguttara,
III, p. 57; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 24, p. 679a). However, according to Hiuan tsang, T 2087, k. 8, p. 911a. it was a
certain Asok i lasoka?) real randson o i imb i hi han d ih pit I ii >i l!i> from i i!u lo
Pataliputra. - Shortly after Kalasika, the throne of Magadha passed to the Nanda dynasty, then to that of the Mauryas.
I il n mil I i il leul is in the service of Candragupta, about 305 BC, has left for us a description of the
city of Palimbothra (= Pataliputra): "This city extends, on each side, in its greatest length, 80 stades ( ! 5 km.); in width, 15
stades (3 km.); a moal surrounds the entire city 6 plethres ( 180 m.) in width, 20 cubits ( L5 m.) in depth. The surrounding
wall has 570 towers and 64 gates" (Arrien, X, 6; tr. P. Chartraine, Les belles Lettres, p. 37). These dimensions hardly
agree with the information given by the Ylpps which attributes to Pataliputra a circumference of one yojana.
■"" This is the lndrasailaguha; see above.
34 7 s ee above.
348 p or j^g stor y of Jyotiska and a description of this wealth, refer to the Dhammapadattha, p. 207-221 (tr. Burlingamc,
Legends, III, p. 319-331); Divyavadana, XIX, p. 262-290 (tr. H. Zimmer, Karma, em bud u ,, ' Leyeiideiikran
Munchen, 1925, p. 105-174); Fo woupo ti tseu, T 199 (nO. 17), p. 195; Chou t'i k'ie king, T 540, vol. XIV, p. 825; Ta pan
nie p'an king, T 375, k. 28, p. 789a; Rockhill, Life, p. 65-70, 94-95.
■"" Evidently this is the serpent Alala, protector of Magadha. The story of his conversion is told in the P'ou sa pen hing
king, T 155, k. 2, p. 1 16a-l 19a, and summarized in Hobogirin, Aluirara, p. 10, in the following words: The pool of Yeou
lien, near Rajagrha, is the home of a dragon named Sundara which destroyed the crops in the Magadha. A brahmin
subdued it by means his magic and the population rew arded him w iih gifts, but when the Buddha was about to establish
Rajagrha, his beneficent activity sufficed lo repress the activity of the dragon and the people stopped offering gifts to the
brahmin. Irritated, he vowed to become a dragon along with his w ile and two children: io be assured of the realization of
this vow, he acquired the merit of offering a meal to the Buddha's four great disciples. Then he took the place of the
[78b] Thus, after the nirvana of the Buddha, the sthavira Mo ho kia < i (] ill il i a apa), wishing to gather
together the scriptures, looked for a wealthy country where begging would be fruitful and where the
scriptures could be quickly collected. After reflecting, he thought of Rajagrha where, under the order of
king Bimbasara, food was always prepared for 1000 bhiksus. True, the king was dead, but this custom had
not been abolished. At Rahagrha food was easy to find and the scriptures could easily be collected
there. 3->0 In other countries, this was not always the case: "When the alms-round is made, the heretics
(tirthikd) would come to engage in debates; if one debated with them, the gathering of the scriptures would
suffer; if one did not engage in debate with them, they would say: 'These sramanas are not good for us.' "
For all these considerations, Mahakasyapa chose 1000 great arhats and went to the Grdhrakutaparvata to
compile the basket (pitaka) of the texts there. For these three reasons, we know that begging was
successful in the land of Magadha.
on the other hand, in the Agamas and in the Vinaya, it is said that at P'i ye li (VaisalT), there are often
famines {durbhiksa)?^^ Similarly, the Hiang nan t'o p'o nan t'o long wang hiong king
dragon Sundara and began to ravage the crops, of which he lefl onh the straw, hence his name Palala 'Without straw': his
wife, changed into a dragon, received the name Pi cheou ni, and one of his sons, the name K'i than ni. King Ajatasatru
asked the Buddha for help; aided by Vajrapani, who split the mountain with his thunderbolt, the Buddha subjugated the
dragon, his wife and children, and all the dragons and demonic creators of illnesses were saved in the naighboring
kingdom of VaisalT. - A somewhat different story, but also located in Magadha, is told in a commentary on the
likottaragama, the l ; cn pie kong 16 loucn, T 1507, k. 5, p. 559): The brahmin Fan che, who had taken birth in the form of
the dragon Apaiala and ravaged the crops in Magadha, was transported to the north-west of India: the Mpps, below at k.
9, p. 126b, tells us that the Buddha went to north-western India to the land of Yue tche and there subjugated the king of
the dragons. Apaiala. A large number of texts tell this legend of the north- west of India: Ken pen chouo... yao che, T
1448, k. 9, p. 40b (tr. in Przysluski, ibid., p. 510): In ii rth iiilnli the d i Apalal u | n 1 u d b\ the Buddha aided
by the yaksa Vajrapani, was converted along with his wife and children. [The Buddha predicted that one hundred years
alter his nirvana, the disciple Madhyantika would convert the poisonous dragon Huruta in Kasmir]. Several texts allude
to this episode: Divyavadana, p. 348, 385; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 604), k. 23, p. 165b22; Legend of Asoka in T 2942, k. 1,
p. 102b and T 2043, k. 2, p. 135b.
Hiuan tsang locates in a pool near the sources of the Shubhavastu (Swat) the place where the Buddha, with the aid of
Vajrapani's thunderbolt, tamed the dragon Apaiala, the reincarnation of (he brahmin Gahgi. However, in order to assure
his livelihood, the Buddha permitted him to raise a storm every twelve years (Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 3, 882b-c; tr. Beal, I, p.
122; Watters, I, p. 229).
Other dragons, also tamed by the Buddha, are possibly identical with Apaiala; for example, the dragon Aravala that
ravaged Kasmir and was tamed by Madhyantika (Samantapasadika, i. p. 65: Vlahavamsa, XII, v. 9-20, tr. Geiger, p. 82;
C han kicn p'i p' cha liu, T 1462, k. 2, p. 685a, tr. by Przyluski, N.-O. de I'Inde, p. 562 ), and the dragon Ho lo (53 and 10;
122 and 14), [probably Aravala], converted by the Buddha (Hien kie king, T 425, k. 4, p. 30b). For the monuments, see
Foucher, Art Greco-bouddhique, I, p. 544-553.
■"° Cf. Vinaya, II, p. 285: Atlui kho theranaiii hhikkunam.... upgaccheyyun ti. - The same deliberation in the other
Vinayas, cf. Przyluski, Concile, p. 140, 172, 20294, 226.
■"^ Famines at VaisalT are mentioned in the Vinaya, IV, p. 23. \ I iln i ika Vina; a, \\ ou fen liu, T 1421, k. 22, p. 152b.
But the city of Rajagrha was not free of them as far as is known: Vinaya, II, p. 175; Ken pen chouo... p'o seng che, T
1450, k. 20, p. 202c.
(Nandopanandagarajadamanasutra)352 sa y S that at Cho p'o t'i (SravastT) also there were famines. There
were frequent famines in the other contries as well. But this is not the case for Magadha. This is why we
know that Magadha is wealthy and that begging there is successful.
9. Finally, between two mountains, Rajagrha is a well-protected retreat. In the other lands, the monasteries
(vihara) are on level ground; numerous crowds enter, leave and come and go as they please. These are not
well-protected retreats. In the mountains of Rajagrha there are many viharas; contemplatives (dhyayin) and
aryas who all love sheltered retreats settle there in great numbers. The Buddha, chief of contemplatives and
aryas, frequently resides at Rajagrha.
These are the various reasons why he often stays at Rajagrha.
BUDDHA'S PREFERENCES FOR GRDHRAKUTAPARVATA
Question. - If it is true that the Buddha resides preferentially at Rajagrha, why does he dwell more often on
the Grdhrakutaparvata rather than at Venuvana?
Answer. - I have already answered that question: the aryas and contemplatives (dhyayin) are happy in
sheltered places.
Question. - But at Rajagrha there are four other mountains: the Pi p'o lo po nou (Vaibharavana). etc. Why
does he stay less often there than at Grdhrakutaparvata?
Answer. - 1. Of the five mountains [of Rajagrha], the Grdhrakutaparvata is the best. Why is that? Because
its monastery (vihara) is close to the city but difficult of access; this is why the crowds do not go there. But
as it is near the city, begging is not tiring. That is why the Buddha resides frequently on the
Grdhrakutaparvata and not elsewhere.
2. Moreover, it is on the Grdhrakutaparvata that the sthavira Mo ho kia cho (Mahakasyapa) compiled the
three baskets of the Dharma (dharmapitaka). When he had saved the beings who could be saved, he
352 A short surra, the Pali original of which is reproduced in its entirety by Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimagga, II,
p.398-401 (title in Jataka, V, p. 126, 1. 22), translated into Chinese by the Scythian Tche k'ien, under the title Long wang
hiong ti king, T 597, vol. XV, p. 131, and inl hi n under 111 nam lul halji mil
Mdo XXX, 21 (Csoma-Feer, p. 289; OKC, no. 755, p. 228). The Buddha along with 500 bhiksus went to the Trayastrimsa
heaven which overhangs the palace of tin- "i lj i I in Jandopananda. Angry, the latter wrapped himself seven times
around Mount Meru to hide it from the Buddha's sight. Rastrapala and Bhadrika proposed to the Buddha to overcome
him, but it was Maudgalyayana who was charged with this task. A terrible struggle ensued, the naga finally took to (light
bin pin ucd md being bron lit bad i laud il i ui li dm d himself inl i ung bi liimn ho tool rcfui in (he
Buddha. - The conversion of Nandopananda. \\ inch bears a striking resemblance to thai of the dragon Apalala, is told or
simply mentioned in Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 28, p. 703b sq.; Saddharmapundarlka, p. 4, 1. 11; Divyavadana, p. 307,
329, 395; Legend of Asoka (in Przyluski, Asoka, p. 257). - Below, the Mpps, k. 32, p. 300a-b, has Nanda and Upananda,
two brothers, who want to destroy SravastT.
wanted, like the Buddha, to enter nirvana. "3 r n ear iy morning (purvahna), having taken his bowl and his
cloak {patracivaram adaya), he entered Rajagrha to be; 1 , (rdjagrluim pinddya prdvikisat). Then he
■"-> The nirvana of Mahakasyapa, on which the Pali sources are silent, is related in a whole series of texts in greater or
lesser detail: Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 44, p. 789a; Mo ho mo ye king, T383, k. 2, p. 1013b; Mi 15 hia lota tch'eng fo king,
T 456, p. 433b; Divyavadana, p. 61-62 (= Ken pen chouo...yao che, T 1448, k.6, p 25a-b; Ken pen chouo... tsa che, T
1451, k. 40. p. 408c-409c (tr. J. Przyluski, Le Nord-Ouest de I'Inde, JA, 1914, p. 522-528); P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 20, p.
99b, and especially k. 135, p. 698b: Kosa, VII, p. 120; A yu wang tchouan, T 2042, k. 4, p. 114a-116b (tr. Przyluski,
Ashoka, p. 327-340); A yu wang king, T 2043, k. 7-8, p. 152 sq.; Fa hien tchouan, T 2085, p. 863c (tr. Legge, p. 92-93);
Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 9, p. 919b-c (tr, beal, II, p. 142-144; Watters, II, p. 143-146). - Because of their
precision, here is a translation of two of these sources:
T 456, p 43 1 i t that tim i i i'li In d i] ' nl t< th 1JI11 ikutaparvata. H in m to li f< ol o tin
mountain, peacefully ant! w ilh slow steps he climbed the Lang tsi mountain (94 and 7: \51 and <:<: probably Kukkurapada,
'Wolf-track Mountain'). Having come to the summit, he tapped the mountain with his toes. Then the great earth shook
eighteen times up to the top of the mountain. Vlaitrcya then struck the mountain v. iih two fingers of his hand and. like a
cakravartin king, opened the gate of a large city. Then with heavenly perfumed oil, king Brahma anointed the head of
I ,1. il i ip i Inn I'll i, [i on " md I I tin i ii - in h .1 the Dharma l i , < , I ih il p ol i
Iron iiuiiiii mi i ilti tin hi u| [ i l in i i hi Ik ul i . knell n In ri 'ill
i i i i i i I 1 1 hi [ ilin f his hand i I I 'hi
he took the samghatf of the Buddha Sakyamuni [of which he was the holder] and offered it to Maitreya, saying: "The
n I Tea 1m i il imuni latha ita irhal imyal mil u Idhi when he was about to enter into nirvana, entrusted me with
this religious robe to offer to you, O Venerable one." Then the great assembly asked Buddha Maitreya: "Who is on the
summit of this mountain, this man with the head of an insect, tiny, ugly, carrying the robe, who made offerings to the
Venerable one?" Then the Buddha Maitreya said to his great disciples: "Do not scorn this man... it is Mahakasyapa."
Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 135, p. 698b: At the time of nirvana, why does the Buddha not keep the body of emanation
(ninnanakaya) in order io continue to preach the Dharma and benefit beings after his nirvana'? Why. on the oilier hand.
does the sth i \l h I [ mi In irinu n keep his body and lemain foi a long time? The sthavira
vlahal ipa had in to Rajagrha to b In f< o i ind iH r he had itci It liml d th n > intain of .A3 tsou (172 and
10; 157: Kukkutapada). This mountain had three peaks and looked like a cock's foot. The sthavira penetrated U> (he
v iddf mil cated nh i i cd I i rani i addln ' li made the follow ii d laratii '1 ish that my bod Hn
my patched robes {pamsukula), my bowl {patra) and my staff (danda) may remain for a long lime, for 57 kotis and 60
hundred thousands of years, without decaying. When the Tathagata Maitreya, the fully enlightened arhat
i • i ni ' ,/ia) ,will appear in the world i ' >liiita), 1 il 1 i\ nun |iln robe] that bi longed to the Buddha."
Having made this vow, he entered parinirvana and then the three peaks of the mountain closed into one over the sthavira
who remained in perfect posture. When the Buddha Maitreya will appear in the world, he will lead numberless men and
gods to the summit of this mountain and say to the assembly: "Do you want to see the great disciple Kasyapa who was
foremost anion ill the di ipli ol i 1 niiun, ho practiced the ruli f strict austeril {dhi i I? flic a mbh
ill m ,i We would like to see him." f hen tin I at ha ita .Vlaitrcya will trikc tin ummit of ICukkutapadaparvata ith
his right hand and the peak will separate again into three parts. Al that moment, Kasyapa with his patched robes, his bowl
and his staff will rise up into space (akasa). The immense crowd of gods and men. seeing this miracle (pratihdrya), will
cry out at the miracle {adhln i i I and their heart ill be mo d. The Bh ival laitn i ill preach the Dharm i
is proper and all will be able to see the truths.
ascended Grdhrakutaparvata-"4 alK j said to his disciples; "Today I will enter [78c] nirvana-without-residue
(nirupadhisesanirvana)." Having spoken thus, he enterd his house and, seated cross-legged (paryankam
dbhujya), he perfumed his body with pure absorptions (andsravasamdpatti). The disciples of
Mahakasyapa entered Rajagrha and said to the officials: "Do you know that the sthavira Mahakasyapa has
today entered into nirupadhisesanirvana?" At these words, all the officials felt very sad. They said: "The
Buddha has already disappeared (niruddha) and now Mahakasyapa who protected (pdlayati) the
Buddhadharma also wants to enter nirupadhisesanirvana!" At twilight, officials and bhiksus met at the
Grdhrakutaparvata. That same night, the sthavira Mahakasyapa came out of his concentration (samdpatter
vyutthdya), entered the assembly and sat down. He praised impermanence (anityata): "All conditioned
dharmas (samskrtadharma), the results of causes and conditions (pratftyasamutpdnna), are impermanent;
non-existent yesterday, existent today, tomorrow they return to non-existence; therefore they are
impermanent. Being impermanent, they are suffering (duhkha). Being suffering, they are without substance
(andtmaka). As they are without substance, the sage (pandita) should not be attached (abhinivisate) to 'me'
and 'mine' (ddymdtmvya) . If he is attached to 'me' and 'mine', he experiences immense sadness and
suffering. The mind (citta) should experience disgust (samvega) in the presence of all the universes (loka)
and seek renunciation (vairdgya)." Proclaiming in every way the suffering at the heart of the universes
(lokadhdtu), he freed his mind in order to enter into nirvana. When he had finished preaching, he put on
the robe (samghdti) that he had received from the Buddha-^" once more and, taking his robe (civara), his
bowl (pdtra) and his staff (danda), he rose up into space like the golden-winged bird (garuda), [assumed]
the four bodily postures (kdyerydpatha); seated, lying down, walking and standing. In his one body there
appeared innumerable [79a] bodies that filled the universes of the east, then these innumerable bodies
■"^ He ascended the Grdhrakuraparvata and still more precisely, according to most of the sources (T 1451, p. 409b; T
1545, p. 698b; T2042, p. 114c; T 2085, p. 863c; T 2987, p. 919b) the mountain 'cock's foot' (kukkutpadd), probably a
mountain chain making up pari of the Grdhrakutaparvata massif: at least this is what may be inferred from the passage
from T 456, p. 433b, translated above. Fa hien placed the Kukkutapada three li south of the bodhi tree (T 2087, p. 868c),
Hiuan tsang placed it 100 li east of the Mo ho river (T 2087, p. 919b), and Yi tsing, near the bodhi tree (Chavarrnes,
I ! i l i i i in ii i i in ! i i i i ( I tha Ihi in mi i ' il ( ill d mi i I
the mountain of 'Teacher's foot'. - In the place of the reading 'Cock's foot' (Ki tsou: Kukkutapada), three sources at least
(T 383, p. 1013b; T 456, p. 433b; T 1861, p. 270c) read 'Wolf-track' mountain (Lang tsi). Watters, Travels, II, p. 144,
followed by Demieville, Origine des sectes bouddhiques, MCB, I, 1931-32, p. 30, propose Kokapada as the Sanskrit
cqui\ ili hi 1 [I imotti | ould , turn 'It it if din i ' liin i i i ion li in I id d I / in n origin il ! inskril ha\ in; b
mi i I ' i i I i /</</ Cock's-foot'. - Finally we note that two sources, apparently
among the oldest (T 125, p. 789a; T 453, p. 422b) locate the nirvana of Kasyapa at the village of P'i t'i (81 and 5; 64 and
9: Videha) in the country of Mo kie (Magadha).
355 In the Samyutta, II, p. 221 (tr. Rh. D., Kindred Sayings, II, p. 149; tr. Geiger, II, p. 284), Kasyapa tells Ananda how
he exchanged his robe made of patches of material (patapilotikanani sanghati) for the tattered used rags (saiuau
i u/< lam in hi Umi) ol the Buddha. - The same sutra occurs in the Chinese version of the Samyuktagama, T 99 (no.
1 144), k. 41, p. 303b; T 100 (no. 1 19), k. 6, p. 418c. - on the other hand, in Hiuan tsang, T 2087, k. 9, p. 919c, the robe
w hich Kasyapa had to give back to Maitreya is the monastic robe of the Buddha, all embroidered with gold, a giil of his
became one single body again. From the upper part of his body there came forth fire (agni), while from the
lower part there came forth water (udaka); then from the upper part there cameforth water, while from the
lower part there came forth fire.356 And he repeated the same phenomenon in the directions of the south,
the west and the north. The community felt disgust for the world (lokusumvega) and all its members
rejoiced. Then Mahakasyapa with his robe, his bowl and his staff made the following vow on the summit
of Grdhrakutaparvata: "I wish that my body will not rot. When Mi Id (Maitreya) becomes Buddha, my
skeleton (asthisamghata) will reappear and with him I will save beings." Having reflected in this way, he
penetrated right into the rock forming the mountain summit as if entering soft mud; and after he had
penetrated into it, the mountain closed up once more. 35 ' In future generations, the human lifespan will be
84,000 years and a man's height 80 feet. When the Buddha Maitreya comes, the height of the Buddha will
be 160 feet, his face will measure 24 feet and his halo (vyomaka) will be 10 li. Then, when beings learn
that the Buddha Maitreya has appeared in the world (pradurbhutd), all together will embrace the religious
life (pravrajita) to follow the Buddha. When the Buddha will proclaim the Dharma in the assembly
(samgha) for the first time, 99 prabhedas of human beings will attain the state of arhat and will be
endowed (samanvdgata) with the six superknowledges (abhijnd); in the second great assembly, 96
prabhedas of human beings will attain the state of arhat; in the third there will be 93 prabhedas?-'". These
in turn will save innumerable men. At that time, people will often be lazy (kusida) and the Buddha
Maitreya, seeing men in that state, will strike Grdhrakutaparvata with his fingers; then the skeleton of
Mahakasyapa, clothed in his samghati, will appear and prostrate at the feet of Maitreya, rise up into space
and [once more] manifest the transformations (parinamd) described above. Then the disciples of Buddha
Maitreya, full of astonishment, will ask: "Who is this man? We say 'man' but he is so tiny. He is dressed in
monk's robes and can accomplish the transformations." The Buddha Maitreya will reply: "This man is a
■"" In other words, Kas\ ip i i ording to the words of T 2042, p. 1145a, accomplished the 18 parinamas: these are the
/ ' ui ill laha iilpalti a > 1 « » | hi ncnli ii li multiplyii nil <li liii reducing to a ngl nc of
lahal ii. bod\ ill vlpp i refcrrin m ih> i h inJ eventh ahhijii uai hln Hilnulh i\ xilnuh
bhutvaiko bhavati. - As for the phenomenon of emitting fire from the upper part of the body and water from the lower
part and vice versa, this is known as the twin miracle (yamakaprdtihdrya). The Buddha accomplished this on several
occasions (cf. Nidanakatha, p. 77, 88, 193; Sumahgala, I, p. 57; Mahavastu, III, p. 1 15; Divyavadana, p. 161, 378) and the
saints often produced it at the moment of their entry into nirvana (see above, the nirvana of Gavampati). on the
mechanism and meaning of this miracle, see Dhammapadattha. lii, p. 214-215 (tr. Burlingamc. Legends, 111. p. 45-47); P'i
p'ocha, T 1545, k. 135, p. 698c.
■"' According to some sources, when the rock closed up over Kasyapa, he at once entered into nirvana
(Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1451, k. 40, p. 409a; Legend of Asoka, T 2042, K. 4, p. 115a; Vibhasa, T 1545, K. 135, p.
698b; Hiuan tsang, T 2087, k. 9, p. 910). - According to other sources, and the Mpps is one of these, Kasyapa is merely
slumbering or in nirodhasamapatti and will enter nirvana only after having given the Buddha's robe back to Maitreya
(Ekottaragama, T 125, k. 44, p. 789a; T 456, p. 433b).
■"° According to the numerical system adopted by the Mpps (below, k. 5, p. 94b), wan, in Sanskrit prahheda, is
equivalent to 10,000. - In other sources, the three asemblies of Maitreya are of different numbers: Tseng yi a han, T 125,
k. 44, p. 978a, attributes to them 96, 94 and 92 kotis of members [the koti, in Chinese yi, equals 10,000,000]. These are
also the numbt ■ in I tiln t s i 1 u ina, v. 77080 (ed. S. Levi, Maitreya le consolateur, ML, Paris, 1932, II, p. 388:
pratlianialj saiiuiipato 'sya.... imiktanam .w
disciple of the past Buddha Sakyamuni. He is called Mahakasyapa, He is the foremost of the bhiksus who
dwell in the forest (aranyavasin), who have no desire (alpeccha), are content [with little] (samtusta) and
follow the strict observances (dhutagunavadiri)?** j{ e j s a g rea t arhat who possesses the six
superknowledges (abhijtia) and the deliverances (vimoksa). During his time, the human lifespan was 100
years; births were rare and deaths were frequent. If, with his minuscule body, Mahakasyapa was able to
accomplish such great things, why do you not accomplish such miracles with your great bodies and your
sharp faculties (tiksnendriya)?" Then the disciples, shamefully, will experience great disgust (samvega)
[for the world] and the Buddha Maitreya, conforming with the dispositions of the assembly, will preach all
the truths (dharma). Some will become arhats, non-returners (andgamin), once-returners (sakrddgamin),
enterers into the stream (srotaapanna); others will plant the roots of good (kusalamula) [which will make
them] pratyekabuddhas; others will acquire the patient acceptance of unborn dharmas
(anutpattikadharmaksdnti) and will become irreversible bodhisattvas {avaivartikabodhisattva); finally,
others will be reborn among gods and men (devamanusya) and enjoy all kinds of happiness. - From that we
know that the Grdhrakutaparvata is a blessed and propitious place. The aryas love to reside [79b] there.
The Buddha, the chief of the aryas, frequently resides on the Grdhrakutaparvata.
3. Moreover, the Grdhrakutaparvata is the residence of Buddhas of the past (atTta), the future (andgata)
and the present (pratyutpannd). Thus it is said in the Fou leou na mi ti li tseu king
(Purnamaitrayanlputrasutra)360 : "j ne Buddha said to Puma: 'When the trichiliomegachiliocosm
{trisdhasamahdsdhasralokadhdtu) will will be burned up [at the end of] the kalpa, I will return and will
always stay on this mountain. But weighed down by their fetters (samyojandlingita) and unable to see the
qualities (guna) of the Buddha, beings will not see me.' "
4. Moreover, the Grdhrakutaparvata is pure and fresh. It welcomes the Buddhas and bodhisattvas of the
three times. No place is equal to it. That is why the Buddha stays there often.
-"" Cf. Div>a\adana p 61 avail ivakah i > In i\v Vhguttara I, p. 23, Kasyapa was already
proclaimed the foremost of the <// / ivtidti < uiliai in tin on . uMiIpi pa igc of the Tseng yi a han, T 125,
k. 3, p. 557b, he is said to be the foremost of those who practice the twelve dhutas. - The dhuh nga oi dhutaguna an tin
very strict rules favored by some Buddhists, in number cither twelve or thirteen: Vinaya, V, p. 131, 193; Mahavyutpatti,
no. 1 127-1 139; Milinda, p. 359; Dharmasamgraha, eh. LXIII, p. 13 (to be compared with Fa tsi ming chon king, T 764, p.
661a); Visuddhimagga, p. 59, to be compared with Kiai t'o tao louen, T 1648, k. 2, p. 404b (cf. P, V, Bapat,
i i i i i i i ' oona, 1937, p. 16 sq.). Kern, Histoire, II, p. 16-18; Manual, p. 75-76, has a good
paragraph on the dhutangas.
J " ( Purna .Ylaitrayanipulra, in Pali Punna Ylantaniputta, the most famous of the preachers (Ahguttara, I, p. 23) plays only
an eclipsed role in the canonical scriptures: lie preaches the pradtyasamutpada lo Ananda in the Samyutta. Ill, p. 105 (cf
Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 261), k. 10, p. 66a) and debates with Sariputra in (he Rathavinitasutta of lite .Vlajjhima I, p. 146 sq.
(cf. Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 9), k. 2, p. 430a: Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 33, p. 733c). on the other hand, he is rather
important in the Greater Vehicle; thus, in (he Saddharmapundanka, the Buddha says (hat Purna Ylaitrayanipulra, having
fulfilled the tasks of a bodhisattva, will attain the state of samyaksambuddha after numberless and measureless kalpas,
and will be the tathagata Dharmaprabhasa who will be born in the very land of the Buddha.
NOTE: The lengthy Sanskrit and Paii quotations have been abbreviated.
5. Moreover, the Mahayana sutras were most often preached at the Grdhrakutaparvata, rarely elsewhere.
Why? Because this place is pure and constitutes a marvelous retreat. The Buddas of the three times and the
bodhisattvas of the ten directions praise (varnam vadanti) and honor (pujayanti) this place. The devas,
nagas, yaksas, garudas, gandharvas, kimnaras, mahoragas and other very powerful deities protect
(palayanti), honor and venerate {satkurvanti) this place. A stanza says:
This Grdhrakutaparvata
Is the residence of the Buddhas,
The refuge of the arya:
It protects them all.
Suffering is abolished there,
Alone, it keeps the true Dharma.
6. Finally, it is there that the innumerable bodhisattvas of the ten directions, wise, marvelous and very
powerful, come to see the Buddha Sakyamuni, greet him, pay their respect to him and listen to his Dharma.
This is why the Buddha preaches the Mahayanasutras so often on the Grdhrakutaparvata, The Prajna is the
most important of these sutras and, since he wishes to preach it today, why should it not be on the
Grdhrakutaparvata?
We have just explained in summary (samasatah) why the Buddha resides on the
Grdhrakutap arvata .
CHAPTER VI: THE GREAT BHIKSU SAMGHA
Text commented on in this chapter (Cf. Pancavimsati, p. 4; Satasahasrika, p. 2-4):
Mahatd bhiksusamghcna stirtlham pancamdtrair hliiksiisaluisraili (I) sarvair arhaclhliili (2) ksindsravair
(3) nisklesaih (4) suvimuktacittaih suvimiiktaprajnair (5) dAleyair (6) mahdndgaih (7) krtakrtyair (8)
apahrtabhdrair bhdrasahair (9) anupraptasvakdthaih (10) pariksinabhavasamyojanaih (11)
samyagdjndsuvimuktair, ekapudgalam sthdpayitvd yad utdyusmantam Anandam saiksam
srotadpaniuim}^
"The Buddha was accompanied by a great samgha of five thousand bhiksus; all were arhats, had destroyed
the impurities, were free from the afflictions; their minds were well freed; their minds as well as their
wisdom were tamed; they were great 'nagas'; they were accomplished and complete, " 2 they had laid down
the burden but were capable of bearing it; they had assured their own personal benefit; they had completely
broken the fetters of existence; they were completely freed by perfect knowledge with the exception of
Ananda who, being of the saiksa level, had [merely] entered the stream."
Sutra: Accompanied by a great samgha of bhiksus {mahatd bhiksusamghena sardham).
Sdstra:
SARDHAM
Sardham 'accompanied by' indicates the identity of place (desa), time (kdla), mind (citta), discipline (sila),
views (drsti), path (mclrga) and deliverance (vimoksa).^
MAHAT
Mahat, in the language of the Ts'in, means 'great', numerous (sambahula), or superior (srestha)?^
1 . This samgha is great because it surpasses all the others, because it has broken all the obstacles (dvarana)
and because the gods (deva), kings (rdjan) and other great individuals respect it (satkurvanti).
2. This samgha is numerous because there are five thousand members.
3. This samgha is superior because it is able to refute the teachings (upadesa) of the 96 heretical sects (read
wai tao = tirthika).- 5 "^
J "' Wc may notice thai this formula departs from the traditional text at certain points: three epithets arc omitted, namely.
vaih ami sarvat i m tin < ill l h ml iccurs h onl
J(> - Rasher lice translation afkrtakrtyai/i which means 'ha\ ins: accomplished what had to be done',
1 Cf. Bu Kit 1 > i i ii i ii | / i i i i
attlio. Saddliiu ti ekato.
"4 cf. ibid., p. 35: Mai tmal < i > i i
apiccliatadiguijasatasanuinnagatastta, sanikhaya pi iruilia pancasatasamklidtattd.
BHIKSU
[79c] What is a bhiksu? The bhiksu is a mendicant.
1. He is called bhiksu because of his pure means of livelihood (pariguddhajTva). Thus it is said in a
sutra: 366 :
"Sariputra entered the city to beg his food; when he had obtained it, he sat down against a wall (kudyam
nisraya nyasidat) to eat. Then a brahmacarim named Tsing mou (Sucimukhl) came to see Sariputra and
asked him:
365 Cf. Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 410.
366 The Sucimukhl sutra, taken from Samyutta, III, p. 238-240 (tr. Woodward, Kindred Sayings, III, p. 189-191). The
Chinese version is in Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 500), k. 18, p. 131c-132a. Here are the main passages:
1 . tikaiu samayam ayasma Sariputto Rajagalie viharati Veluvane Kalandakanivape.
2. Atlia kho ayasma Sariputto puhhauhasamayain nivasetva pattacivaram adaya Rajagalie pindaya pavisi. Rajagalie
sapadauain pindaya caritva tain pindapatam ahhatiirain kuddam uissaya parihhuujati.
3. Atha kho Sueimiiklii parihhajika yenayasma Sariputto teriiipasahkami. upasaiika/uiyva ayasiuantaiu Sariputtum ctad
4-7. Kim nu i ho .... disamukho .... vidisainiii i
adhomukho .... ubbhamukho ....disamukho .... vidisamukho bhunjamiti.
8. Kathancarahi samana bhunjastti.
9. Ye hi keci bha < r ; ( c ijn ikam kappentt
taijahra nana adhoinukha hi uiij< n i •
10. Ye hi keci hhagini saiiiaijahrahinaija duteyyapahinagaiiianaiuiyoga iniccajiveiia jivikaiiikappenti. i
hhagini saiiiaijahrahiiiaijauhlihaiuukha lihuhjaiititi.
11. Ye hi kec ' \ ikam kappenti, .
bhagini samanalu ihiiuja di nil uititi
12. Ye In keci samana raha i iracch ieehajn am kappenti, ir
saiiiaijahrahamaija vidisamukha hhuhjaiititi.
13. So UuiM i ii i i
iraeel ivi) i i ehajiw vil Ohammeiit 'a' in ,' in '. i mem ukkhain ,\ , '
hhui'ijamiti.
14. Atho kho , ' va rathiyaiu kena sihgi , mitva evam
aroeesi. Dhammikaiii samana sakyaputtiya dliaram aliarenti ariavajjaiii samana sakyaputtiya aharani aharenti. detlia
samandnam sakyaputtiyanaiii pindau ti.
The Chinese version of the Tsa a han follows the Pali tcxl closely bul ai the end adds an interesting detail v\ hich the Mpps
does not mention: "At that time, some tlrthika pravrajikas heard the lirthika Sucimukhl who was praising (he sramanas.
sons of the Sakyas. Out of jealousy, they killed the tirthika pra\rajika Sucimukhl', After her death, she was reborn among
the Tusita gods because she had faith ( \raddhaeitta) in the venerable Sariputra."
The main differences that we notice between the various redactions of the Sutra of Sucimukhl oblige us to recognize that
(he Mpps has borrowed its quotation from a canonical collection departing considerably from '.he tradition represented b\
the Pali Samyuttanikaya and the Chinese Samyuktagama.
- O Sramana, are you eating?
- 1 am eating.
- Sramana, are you eating with your face down {adhomukho bhunjasi)!
- No, sister, he answered.
- Are you eating with your face up in the air (urdhvamukho bhunjasi)!
-No.
- Are you eating with your face turned in the four cardinal directions (dihmukho buhjasi)!
-No.
- Then are you eating with your face turned in the four intermediate direction of the horizon (vidisamukho
bhunjasi)'!
Then Sucimukhi said to him:
- There are four ways to eat. I have asked you and you answer in the negative. I don't understand. You
must explain.
Sariputra said to her:
- There are monks (pravrdjita) who compound medicinal herbs (osadhi), plant grain and cultivate trees,
etc. Those who follow these impure means of livelihood (asuddhdjiva) cat with their face down'. - There
are monks who observe the stars (naksatra), the sun and the moon (survaeaiHlramas), the wind and the
rain (vayuvarsa), the clouds and the clear sky (megavidyut), the thunder and lightning. Those who follow
these impure ways of livelihood 'eat with their face up in the air'. - There are monks who flatter important
people, carry their messages in the four directions of the horizon and solicit their favor with specious
words. Those who follow these impure ways of livelihood 'eat with their face turned in the four cardinal
directions.' - There are monks who study all kinds of magical spells (mantra), curses, charms, etc. Those
who follow these impure ways of livelihood 'eat with their face turned in the four intermediate directions of
the horizon'. As for me, I do not want any of these four impure ways of getting my food; I follow this pure
way of livelihood (parisuddhdjiva) which consists of begging my food (pindapdta).
Then, hearing him speak of this pure food conforming with the Dharma (parisudda dhdrmika ahara),
Sucimukhi rejoiced and had faith (sraddha). Sariputra attained the [80a] state of srotaapanna for having
preached the Dharma."
Therefore one is called bhiksu in accordance with this pure means of livelihood which consists of begging
one's food.
2. Furthermore, bhi means to cut (bhid) and ksu means afflictions (ksud = klesa). The person who has cut
the afflictions is called bhiksu. 3° '
3. Furthermore, the [monk] who has gone forth from home (pravrajita) is called bhiksu. It is like the
eastern (Hou), Chinese (Han) and Tibetan slaves who each have their name.
4. Furthermore, the one who says, from ordination (upasampad) onward: "I, the bhiksu so-and-so, will
observe the precepts (sila) for my whole life. "3"°
5. Furthermore, bhi means to frighten (bhi) and ksu means ability (ksam). The one who has the power to
frighten Mara and his followers [is called bhiksu]. When the monk goes forth from home (pravrajita),
shaves his head, puts on the saffron robe (kasdya) and receives the precepts (sila), Mara is frightened
because he thinks: "This man will definitely enter into nirvana in time." It is as the Buddha said: "The man
who shaves his head, puts on the saffron robe (kasdya) and resolves (ekacittena) to accept the precepts,
will know how gradually to cut the bonds (bandhana) and decrease suffering: he will enter into nirvana."
SAMGHA
What does samgha mean? In the language of the Ts'in, samgha means assembly. The gathering together of
many bhiksus in one place is called samgha. In the same way, a group of large trees is called a forest
(vana). Taken separately, the trees do not make up a forest, but if they are cut down one by one, there is no
longer a forest. In the same way, taken separately, the bhiksus do not make up a samgha, but if they are
removed one by one, there is no longer a samgha. The bhiksus must be gathered together to constitute a
mglu
369
There are four types of samgha: 1) the assembly having shame (hrimat), 2) the shameless samgha
(ahnkya), 3) the assembly of dumb sheep (edamuka)? 4) the true samgha (bhuta)?'^
(l I I hhiksulj is a li Jn onal < mol > i'i >i mi in i'i ol In \ ilili riga, ] the \ im 1 1 ililv
p. 29, 214, and the Petavatthu, p. 51; Mahay utpatti, no. 8753; Kosha, IV, p. 97. - More detailed, the Mahaniddesa, p. 70,
lu li pi >[i i ' u dliaim i ihinnatta bhikkhu.
36° This is the monk who has received the usual ordination by the fourfold action of public declaration
(jnapticaturtliakakannanopasanipaiiiio hluksuh). Cf. Che song liu, T 1435, k. 1, p. 2b9 ( = .Ylahavyulpalli, no. 8754). -
The natticatutthakainina is described in the Vinaya, 1, p. 56, 317 sq.; II, p. 89; III, p. 156; IV, p. 152.
■'"^ According to Buddhaghosa and the Pali commentators, the samgha assumes a commonality of views and precepts; cf.
urn i 1 I [i (i / / iii i i i < i
J,i ' The Chinese translation Ya rang is an imaginative interpretation of the Sanskrit edaimiklia 'deaf-mute', where the
word eda 'deaf has been combined with eda 'sheep'. Cf. Hobogirin, Ayo, p. 45.
J ' ' The I i Isang die loncn king, T 411, k. 3, p. 740c, also distinguishes four types of samgha:
1) s. in the true sense (pai imm hasamghd) 2) s. in the ordinary sense (samvrtu imgha), 3) s. of mute sheep
i 'i i l, 4) shamcli (Won m khci iliril i i. The definitions that it gi irrcspond to th m
the .Ylpps. The same division of the samgha, increased by one point, is repealed by Sanighabhadra in his Clioucn tcheng
lilouenT1562,k. 38, p. 557c:
1. What is the samgha having shame? This assembly observes the precepts (sila) without transgressing
them; its [actions of] body and speech {kayavakkarmari) arc pure (visuddha); it knows how to distinguish
the beautiful from the ugly but has not attained the Path.
2. What is the shameless samgha? This assembly violates the precepts; its [actions of] body and speech are
impure; there is no evil that it does not commit.
3. What is the assembly of dumb sheep? This assembly does not violate the precepts but its faculties are
dull (mrdvindriyd) and it lacks wisdom (prajnd). It is unable to discern the beautiful and the ugly, the light
and the heavy, that which is sinful (dpatti) and that which is not sinful (andpatti). If there is some business
in the samgha where two people are arguing, it is not capable of cutting through the question and remains
silent without saying a word like a white sheep that cannot make a sound until it is butchered.
4. What is the true assembly? The true assembly is that of the saiksas and the asaiksas who reside in the
four fruits (phala) and practice the four paths leading to them.
PANCAMATRA BHIKSUSAHASRA
Sutra: [The assembly] was very numerous; a section of five thousand [men].
Sdstra: What is meant by very numerous? We call a [sum] which increases and rarely decreases very
numerous. In a numerous assembly, if a group is taken out, there is a 'section'. Here in an assembly often
thousand bhiksus, a section of five thousand men is taken. Hence the ｅxpression 'section of five thousand
men'.
l.ARHAT
Sutra: All were arhats.
Sdstra: What does arhat mean?
1. Ara means enemy (ari) and hat means to kill (han). He who has destroyed all these enemies that are
called the afflictions (klesa) is called an arhat.
2. Furthermore, the arhats who have destroyed all the impurities (ksindsrava) deserve (arhanti) veneration
(pujd) by the gods and men of all the universes (lokd).
3. Finally, a designates negation and rahat designates birth. He who will never again be reborn in future
generations is called arhat.
2. KSENASRAVA
i ) / i ' ' l s. of partisans (P'ong I ind i isa l L l ' i / ' / i
i i i • I hi - Similar division in a commentary on the Sarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1440,k. 2, p. 513b: 1)
edwniikasamglHi. 2) alnikyasaniglui. 3) hliiiiiiasainglia, 4) visiuldasamglui. 5) paraniartluisaniglia.
Sutra: They have destroyed the impurities.
Sastra: They are called ksinasrava because they have completely eliminated the three impurities (asrava)
of the threefold world.
3. NISKLESA
Sutra: They were free of the afflictions.
Sastra: They are called nisklesa because they have destroyed all the fetters (samyojana), the attachments
(upadana), the bonds (hanclluina), the obstacles (invarana), wrong views (drsti) and the envelopment of
desire (paryavasthana).
4. SUVIMUKTACITTA, SUVIMUKTAPRAJNA
Sutra: Their mind was completely liberated as well as their wisdom.
Sastra: Question. - Why are they suvimuktacitta and suvimuktaprajnal
Answer. - 1. The heretics (tirthika) who have renounced pleasure (virakta) acquire liberation of mind
(cetovimukti) on one single point and by a single path, but they are not freed from all the obstacles
(avarana). This is why the arhats alone are called suvimuktacitta and suvimuktaprajna.
2. Furthermore, the arhats have acquired liberation of mind (cetovimukti) by a twofold path: the path of
seeing the truths (satyadarsanamarga) and the path of meditation (bhavanamarga); this is why they are
called suvimuktacitta. As for the Saiksas, while they have acquired deliverance of mind, they are not yet
completely liberated because they still retain a residue of the fetters (samyojana).
3. Furthermore, the dharmas auxiliary to the path (margapaksikadharma) are not complete in the heretics
(tirthika). They seek the path by cultivating one single quality (guna) or two qualities but they are unable
to find the path. According to them, the person who is seeking purity (visuddha) by alms-giving (dand)
alone or by sacrificing to the gods (devayajna) can escape from grid' (daurmanasya) and be reborn in a
land of eternal bliss (nityasukha). Others speak about an eightfold path (marga) to go to purity: 1.
individual insight (svavabodha), 2. tradition (sruti), 3. study of the texts (sutradhydyana), 4. fear of inner
suffering (adhyatmikaduhkhabhaya), 5. fear of suffering inflicted by great beings
(mahdsattvaduhkhabhaya), 6. fear of suffering inflicted by the gods (devaduhkhabhaya), 7. the acquisition
of a good teacher (acaryalabha), 8. generosity practiced on a grand scale (mahdddna). They say that only
the eighth method [namely, generosity] merits the name of the path of purity (visuddhimdrga).
Finally, some heretics consider only alms-giving (ddna) and discipline (sTla) as pure; others, alms-giving
and dhydna; yet others, alms-giving and the pursuit of wisdom (prajnaparyesana). All these paths are
incomplete. The person who calls the absence of any quality or just a few qualities purity (visuddhi) will be
able to attain liberation of mind (cetovimukti) to a certain degree but he will not be completely liberated
(suvimukta), for in him the path of nirvana is not complete (paripurna).
[80c] A stanza says:
The man who lacks qualities will be unable to cross
The ocean of birth, old age, sickness and death.
The man endowed with a few qualities will not be able to do more.
The Path of good practices has been proclaimed by the Buddha.
Here the Siupo t'ofan tche king (Subhadrabrahmacarisutra)-> '^ is cited:
"The brahmacarin Subhadra, 120 years old and possessing the superknowledges (abhijna), was on the
shore of lake A napo ta to (Anavatapta). '3 During the night in a dream he saw everybody without eyes,
with bodies naked and deep in shadow; the sun had disappeared, the earth destroyed, the ocean dried up
and Sumeru toppled over by wind-storms. He woke up frightened and said to himself: 'What does this
mean? My life has reached its end since the teachers of heaven and earth are about to fall. ' Perplexed, he
could not understand why he had had this bad dream. Formerly, he had a goddess friend
(kalydnamitradevata)?'^ She came down from the sky and said to Subhadra: 'Fear not; there is an
omniscient one (sarvajha) called Buddha who, during the last watch of the night, will enter into nirvana
without residue (nirupadhiscsanirvdna); the dream which you have had is not about you at all.'-' '*
372 The conversion of Subhadra, to which the Mpps will return later (k. 26, p. 250a) is told in full in a series of texts:
Digha, II, p. 148-153 (tr. Rh. D., P. 164-169; Franke, p. 239-242); Chinese versions of the Mahaparinirvanasutra: T 1 (no.
2), k. 4, p. 25a-b; T 5, k. 2, p. 171c-172a; T 6, k. 2, p. 187b-c; T 7, k. 2, p. 203b-204b; Ta pan nie p'an king, T 375, k. 36,
p. 850c sq.; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 979), k. 35, p. 253c-254c; Tsen yi a han, T 125, k. 37, p. 752; Ken pen chouo... tsa cho,
T 1451, k. 38, p. 396 (cf. Rockhill, Life. p. 138); Avadanasataka, I, p. 227-240 (tr. Feer, p. 151-159); Siuan tsi po yuan
king, T 200 (no. 37), k. 4, p. 220c-221b; Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 6, p. 903c (tr. Beal, II, p. 35-36; Watters, II, p.
30-34); Dhammapadattha, III, p. 375-378 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, III, p. 130).
3'3 In most sources, Subhadra is a citizen of Kusinagara; She Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya (T 1451, k. 38, p. 396a) has him
living on the shore of Lake Mandakini: accoi ding to the Mpps and the // > i Leb hreib (tr. Schieffher, ]
291), he lived in the north near Lake Anavatapta.
3 ' 4 In a previous existence when Subadhra was the bhiksu Asoka, this deity friend already had informed him of the
imminent nirvana of the Buddha ICasyapa (cf. Avadanasataka, I, p. 238).
i ' 5 In the Mul i ir i li ulin Vinaya, T 1451, k. 38, p. 396a, it is a fig tree that warned Subhadra: At that time, there was
in Kusinagara a decrepit heretic parivrajaka called Subhadra, 120 years old. The citizens of Kusinagara respected him,
venerated him and paid homage to him as to an arhat. Not far away, there was a large lotus lake called Man t'o tche eul
! Mandakini) on the shore of which there grew a Wou t'anpo tree (Udumbara or Ficus glomcrata). once, at the time when
the Bodlusatl* .1 hni imon the Tusita gods and had descended into his mother's womb in the form of a white
elephant, that tree began to produce a flower bud. When he came into (he world, the flower bud took on a more and more
brilliant color. When he was an adolescent, it began to open up. When he was filled with disgust for old age. sickness anil
death and w ithdrew into the mountainous forests, it grew a little and took the shape of a crow's beak. When he devoted
himself to asceticism, it seemed to wither. When he gave up asceticism, it came back to life. When he took nourishment,
it recovered its former form. When be attained supreme enlightenment, it expanded. When the god Brahma invited the
Buddha to turn (he wheel of the Dharma at Benares, the fig tree and its flower shone brilliant!) and its marvelous perfume
The next day, Subhadra went to the forest of Kiu yi na kie (Kusinagara). He met Ananda and said to him: 'I
have heard that your teacher teaches a new path to nirvana and today, during the [last] watch of the night,
he is going to undergo cessation (nirodha). I feel some doubts (kdnksa) and 1 would like to see the Buddha
so that he can dispel them.'
Ananda replied: 'The Bhagavat is on the point of death. If you question him, you will tire him out.'
Subhadra repeated his request three times, but Ananda answered him in the same way each time.
The Buddha heard this conversation from a distance and he ordered Ananda: 'Let the brahmacarin
Subhadra come here and question me freely. That will be my last talk. He will become my disciple shortly. '
Then Subhadra, admitted into the presence of the Buddha, exchanged friendly salutations (sammodanim
kathdm vyatisdrya) and sat down to one side {ekdnte nyausidat). He said to himself: 'Some heretics who
have renounced desires (anunaya) and wealth (dhama) and have gone forth from home (pravrajita) have
not found the Path (mdrga), only the sramana Gautama has found it.' Having had this thought, he spoke to
the Buddha: 'In the territory of Yen feou t'i (JambudvTpa). six teachers claim each to be omniscient
(sarvajna). Is this statement correct?'
The Bhagavat answered with these stanzas:-^ '"
filled all the neighborhood. When the Buddha in his compassion had saved all the beings capable of being saved and had
retired to Kusinagara where he lay down for the last time, the fig tree and its flower died, to the great terror of the
spectators. Then Subhadra, seeing this transformation, had this thought: "There must be a misfortune at Kusinagara." At
thai mi menl thi pi iti I i odd ol hi land I i I |i iu i d il to thunder and proclaimed to the people: "Today, in
the middle of the night, the Tathagata v, ill enter into nirupadhiscsanin ana."
■''" Here for comparison are the Pali redaction (DIgha, II, p. 1521) and the Sanskrit (Avadanasataka, I, p. 231) of these
famous stanzas:
Digha: Mama iso va\ < md U liiddln umo n'atth
idanasataka: Izka i itlio va i idi < mirvtiisi mini 'sti nanyah.
The only main different bclv ci tin o redaction i Hi iriant /; , ik in th placi o( pa ivatti. - These
stanzas have tried the sagacity of the translators:
Rhys Davids, Dialogues, II, p. 167: But twenty-nine was I when I renounced the world, Subhadda, seeking after Good.
For fifty years and one year more. Subhadda. since i x\ enl out, a pilgrim ha \ e ! been, through the u ide realm of System
and of Law. - Outside of that, there is no samana.
Kern, Histoire du Bouddhisme dans llnde, p. 232: J'etais age de vingt-neuf ans, Subhadra, lorsque je devins moine,
recherchanl la saintete. II y a plus de cinquantc ans. Subhadra, depuis que je suis devenu moine, me mouvanl sur le terrain
dc la regie legale, en dehors duqucl il n'y a pas d'ascete.
Franke, Dighanikdya in Auswahl iihcrzctzt, p. 240: Ich ward Askct mit neunundzwanzig Jahrcn. Subhadra, um des
Hcilsweg zu erfahrcn, und mchr als funizig Jahre sind verstrichen, seit ich, Subhadra, bin dem Heini cnlw ichen. Vver
mcincs Vv'cgs cin Stuck durchmass als Vvandrcr, hcisst Samana allcin mil Rcchl. Klein andrer!
Of these three translations, that of Kern has the merit of conforming closest to the interpretation of Buddhaghosa in
Sumahgala, II, p. 590. The Buddha left homi (pi vi > r) at 1 nt; m i eai ofagi 1 his date is given by the Pali and
Sanskrit stanzas cited above and confirmed by T 1, p. 25b; T 7, p. 204a; T 26, k. 56, p. 776b; T 99, p. 254b; T 125, p.
752b: I 1451, P. 396c. on the other hand, in the Vlpps, the Buddha left home al the age of nineteen years. This is perhaps
'I was nineteen years old
When I left home to seek the Path of the Buddhas.
Since I left home
More than fifty years have passed.
In pure morality, dhyana and wisdom
Heretics have no share in these.
Having not the slightest share,
How then would they be omniscient?
In a system where the eightfold noble path (aryastangika margd) does not occur, the first, second, third
and fourth fruits (phala) are missing; in a system where the eightfold noble path is found, the first, second,
third and fourth fruits are present. O Subhadra, in my doctrine, there is the eightfold noble path and
consequently the first, second, third and fourth fruits are present. The other systems, those of the heretics
(tirthika), are all void (sunyd): they contain neither the Path nor the fruits nor the [true] sramanas, nor the
[true] brdhmanas. Therefore in my great assembly there is the true lion's roar (simhanada).^''
Having heard this doctrine (dharma), the brahmacarin Subhadra immediately attained the state of arhat. He
said to himself: 'I must not enter nirvana after the Buddha.' Having had this thought, he sat down opposite
the Buddha with crossed legs (paryankam dbhujya) and then, by means of his miraculous power
(rddhibala), he emitted fire from his body which consumed it entirely. Thus he attained his cessation
(w'rofl%a)." 378
a simple lapsus, but I [Lamotte] do not feel myself authorized to correct the text, since at least three sources fix the
departure from home at nineteen years of age: Licou tou tsi king, T 152, k. 7, p. 41c; Sieou hing pen k'i king, T 184, k. 2,
p. 467c: T'ai tscn jouci \ ing pen k'i king, T 185, k. 1, p. 475b. The last two of these even fix the exact date of departure,
the 7th day of the 4th month of the 19th year of the Buddha.
-* ' ' Compare DIgha, II, p. 151 and Avadanasataka, I, p. 232-233.
Digha: Yasniini kho Snhadda dhanmiaviiiaye.... pi tattlia sainano na npalahhhati.
Yasmin ca kho Su adda dham laviiun • until ' > "mini upalabbhati.
Iinasnhin kho Suhiindn d/inininnvinnye.... idlin atiyo sninnno, idlui cntuttiio sainano.
Snhha parappavada samanehi ahhe loko nvnhnntchi assa.
Avadanasataka: Yasya Subhadra dharmavinaye sramanas intra nopalabhyate.
Yasmims tu Snl hadra dhanna i h si njas tatropala itt
Asmims tu Subha, una < ran / \ a brahmana vd.
Sniiyah parapravadah sranujair sa/nyak sinihanadain nadanii.
The Mpps, which ends the homily by saying: "It is thus that in my great assembly, one can truly utter the lion's roar", is
closer to the Sanskrit version where this finale occurs than to the Pali where it is absent. Apart from this phrase, the three
lexis agree perfceth .
3'° The Mahaparinibbanasutta (Digha, II, p. 153) merely says that after the Buddha's homily, Subhadra was admitted
directly into the order instead of having to wait the four months of probation imposed on members of a heretical sect, and
This is why the Buddha said: "Without qualities (guna), or with a few rare qualities, the auxiliary dharmas
to the Path (muigapdksikuclharma) are not complete (paripurna); one cannot find salvation." The Buddha
has said: "When all the qualities are complete, one is able to save disciples." In the same way, a lesser
physician (yaidyd) who has only one or two kinds of medicine (bhaisajya) at his disposal is unable to cure
serious sicknesses (guruvyddhi), whereas a great physician who has all the medicines can cure all the
sicknesses.
Question, - If it is by elimination of all the afflictions (klesa) of the threefold world (traidhdtuka) that the
mind finds liberation (vimukti), why did the Buddha say that the mind finds its deliverance by elimination
of grasping (trsnd)1^^
Answer. - a. Grasping (trsnd) is capable of fettering the mind because of its great power. This is why the
Buddha spoke about it without saying anything about the other afflictions (klesa). When grasping is cut,
the other afflictions are also cut by the same fact.
b. Moreover, when it is said: "The king has arrived", we know that he is necessarily accompanied by his
retinue (parivdra)?™ It is the same for grasping. Or again, when the head (siras) is seized, the rest of the
body follows. It is the same for grasping. When it is cut, we know that all the other afflictions are also cut.
c. Finally, all the fetters (samyojana) depend (apeksante) on cra\ ing (trisna) or on wrong view (drsti). lne
afflictions (klesa) that depend on grasping fetter (dvrinvanti) the mind (citta); those that depend on wrong
view fetter wisdom (prajnd). And so, when grasping is eliminated, all the fetters dependent on it are also
eliminated and one attains deliverance of mind (cetovimukti); when ignorance (avidya) is eliminated, all the
fetters dependent on wrong view are eliminated and one attains deliverance of wisdom (prajndvimukti).
4. Furthermore, these five thousand arhats are irreversible (aparihdnadharmari) and have attained the
knowledge relative to non-production of dharmas (anutpdda jndna); this is why it is said that their mind is
completely liberated as well as their wisdom (suvimukiaciiiu, suviimiktaprajiid), for they do not regress. 381
attained arhathood. But the majority of sources tell us, along with the Mpps, that Subhadra, not wanting to survive the
Buddha, entered nirvana along with him. This detail is given b\ the tour Chinese versions of the .Ylahaparinirvanasutra (1
1, p. 25b; T 5, p. 172b; T 6, p. 187c; T 7, p. 204b), by the Samyuktagama (T 99, p. 254b-c), the Ekottaragama (T 125, p.
753c). the Mnia ai a In idin Vinaya (T 1451, p. 397a; Rockhill, Life, p. 138), the A\ adanasataka. 1, p. 234, and by Hiuan
■''" Cf. Samyutta, I, p. 39-49 / / n/c < ) i chiiuki
bandhanam. Cf. Tsa a han, T 99, k. 36, p. 264M2.
3°0 Cf. Atthasalinl,p. 67: Yathu n id ' to i i When it i rid 'Th king has come', it is clear
that he has not come alone, but that he has come with his retinue."
■'° 1 Of the six types of arhat distinguished by scholastic Buddhism (Kosa, VI, p. 251; Puggalapannatti, p. 12), five, the
parihanadarmas, etc,, have only fortuitous deliverance {sumayiki vimukti) in view of being continually kept. only the
sixth, the akopyadharma, possesses an unshakcablc (akopya) deliverance of mind independent of the circumstances
i ' iiiyiki). T he first fi u usccptiblc of falling from dclivcrano h ixth i lefinitivcly liberated. T he fiv thousand
arhats forming (he Buddha's entourage here are die unshakcablc ones: (his is because (heir mind is completely delivered
(suvimuktacitta). on the other hand, Godhika, of whom we are about to speak, risked falling from deliverance.
The arhats susceptible of regression (parihanadharmari) obtain [only] an occasional liberation
(samayavimukti); thus K'iu t'i kia (Godhika), etc., although they attained liberation, were not completely
liberated (suvimukti), as a result of the possibility of regression (parihanadharma).™?-
5. AJANEYA 383
Sutra: Their minds were tamed.
Sastra: 1. Their minds remain even (samu) and indifferent (ananya) to marks of [81b] respect (arcana)
and worship (puja), as well as to hatred, curses and blows. Whether precious jewels or paving stones are
thrown at them, they consider them as absolutely the same. Whether their hands and feet are cut with a
knife or their body anointed with sandalwood (candana), it is the same and indifferent to them. 384
2. Furthermore, their minds are tamed because they have cut passion (raga), hatred (dvesa), pride
(abhimana) and delusion (moha) at the root.
3. Finally, these arhats do not like what is pleasant, do not hate what is hateful, are not deceived by what
leads to error. They are watchful over their six sense organs. This is why their minds are tamed. A stanza
says:
The man who watches over the six sense organs
Is like a well-trained (dAdneya) horse.
This true sage
Is honored by the gods.
on the other hand, fools (bald) do not know how to watch over the sense organs. Not having cut wrong
views (drsti) inspired by passion (raga), hatred (dvesa) and delusion (moha), they are untamed like a bad
horse. That is why the arhats are called ajaneya.
6. MAHANAGA 385
■"^ Godhika made futile efforts to attain arhathood. He obtained only occasional deliverance of mind (sdmayiki vimukti)
from which he fell six different limes. In his disgust, he committed suicide, obtained the state of arhat at the moment of
death, and thus attained nirvana. Cf. Samyutta, 1, p. 120-122 where the ｅxpression litniMlliildt cetoviimitti which occurs
several times should be corrected to samayika cetoviimitti]: Dhammapadattha, 1, p. 43 1-433 (tr. Burlingamc, Legends, 1!,
p. 90-91); Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 1091), k. p. 286a-b; Y 100 (no. 30), k. 2, p. 382c-383a; P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 60, p. 312b;
Kosa, VI, p. 262.
-'°-' As will appear from the explanations which folio, / i , i from the toot a + jan) is given here linked with the root
a + jna. This is also the explanation of Buddhaghosa and the Pali commentators, cf. Jataka, 1, p. i HI ; Dhammapadattha,
IV, p. 4. .
384 See Hobogirin, Byodo, p. 272.
i i I i i i ili Dha nm i, i i it tl i m /
Sutra: They were great 'nagcis'
Sastra: 1. Mahat means snake or elephant. Among the innumerable other arhats, these five thousand arhats
are extremely powerful; this is why they are compared to a snake and an elephant.
In the water, the snake is very strong; on earth, the elephant is very strong. - A great elephant (gajapati),
well trained, can destroy a great army (send): it marches right up to it and does not turn back; it does not
fear weapons (dyudha), does not turn back before water or fire; it does not swerve, it never turns back;
when death comes, it does not avoid it. In the same way, the arhats who cultivate the dhydnas and wisdom
(prajnd) are able to destroy Mara's army and the fetters (samyojana), their enemies. Whether one insults
them or strikes them, they feel no anger or hatred. They have no fear and do not dread the fire and water of
old age (jard) and death (maraud). - The great naga, coming out of the ocean and mounted on a great cloud
(megha), covers (praticchddayati) space (dkdsa). Emitting a great lightning bolt (vidyut) that lights up
heaven and earth, he lets fall an abundant rain (varsa) that waters everything. In the same way, the arhats
coming out of the ocean of dhydna and wisdom (prajnd), mounted on the cloud of loving-kindness (maitri)
and compassion (karund), water the beings who can be saved. Manifesting great light (dloka) and all kinds
of emanations (parindma), they proclaim the true nature (bhutalaksana) of dharmas and rain down on the
minds of their disciples so that the latter can bring forth the roots of good (kusalamiila).
7. KRTAKRTYA
Sutra: They were accomplished (so tso = krtya) and complete (yi pan = krta).
Sastra: Question - What is meant by krtya and what is meant by krta?
Answer. - 1. They are krtya because they have obtained the good dharmas [81c] (kusaladharma) such as
faith (sraddhd), discipline (sila), equanimity (upeksd), concentration (samddhi), etc. - They are krta
because they have obtained the good dharmas, such as wisdom (prajnd), energy (virya), the deliverances
( vimoksa), etc. - Having these two types of [good] dharmas in full, they are called krtakrtya.
2. Furthermore, the afflictions (klesa) are of two kinds: 1) those that depend on craving (trsndpeksa), 2)
those that depend on wrong views (drstapeksa). The arhats are krtya because they have cut the afflictions
that depend on craving; they are krta because they have cut the afflictions depending on wrong views.
3. Furthermore, they are krtya because the see clearly the material dharmas (rupidharma); they are krta
because they see clearly the non-material dharmas (drupyadharma). It is the same for the other pairs of
dharmas: visible (scinidcirsctnd) and invisible (anidarsana), offering resistance (sapratigha) and not
offering resistance (apratigha), etc.
4. Furthermore, they are krtya because they have cut the bad (akusala) and the morally undefined
(avydkrta) dharmas; they are krta because they meditate on the good dharmas (kusaladharmamanasikdra).
5. Furthermore, they are krtya because they are endowed (samanvdgata) with the wisdom that comes from
hearing (srutamayT prajnd) and the wisdom that comes from contemplating (cintamayT prajnd); they are
krta because they are endowed with the wisdom that comes from meditation (bhavanamayi prajna). ^°" It
is the same for all triads of drams.
6. Furthermore, they are krtya because they have attained [the four nirvedhabhagiyas called] heat
(usmagata), peak (iiuirc/lian), acquiescence or patience (ksdnti) and the highest of worldly dharmas
(laukikdgradharma); they are krta because they have attained the acquiescence or patience producing right
knowledge of suffering (duhkhe dharmaksdnti) and the other pure roots of good (andsrava kusalamula).
7. They are krtya because they have attained the path of seeing the truths {satyadarsanamdrga); they are
krta because they have attained the path of meditation (bhdvandmdrga).
8. They are krtya because they have acquired the path of the aspirants (saiksamdrga); they are krta because
they have acquired the path of the masters (asaiksamdrga).
9. They are krtya because they have obtained liberation of mind (cetovimukti); they are krta because they
have obtained liberation of wisdom (prajndvimukti).
10. They are krtya because of destruction of all the impurities (sarvasravaksaya); they are krta because
they have attained total liberation.
11. They are krtya because they have destroyed all the fetters ( samyojana); they arc krta because they have
obtained definitive deliverance (samayavimukti).
12. They are krtya because they have assured their own personal interest (svakdrtha); they are krta because
they have assured the interest of others (ptirclrtlui).
These are the meanings of the epithet krtakrtya.
8. APAHRTABHARA, BHARASAHA
Sutra: They had set down the burden but were capable of carrying it.
Sdstra: The five aggregates (skandhd) are heavy (dausthiilci) and bothersome (sucluvihethuka); that is why
they are called burden (bhdra). Thus the Buddha said: "What is the burden? The five skandhas are the
burden."-'" ' The arhats are said to be apahrtabhdra because they have set down this burden.
3o» The first prajna has as its object the name (ndman); the second, the name and the thing (artha); the third, the thing
alone. Those who possess them can be compared to three men who are crossing a river: the one who cannot swim does
not abandon the s\\ imming apparatus for even moment: the one who can swim a little sometimes holds onto ii, sometimes
lets go of it; the one who can swim crosses without any support. - For these three prajnas, cf. DIgha, III, p. 219;
Vibhahga, p. 324-325; Visuddhimagga, p. 439; P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 42, p. 217c; Kosa, VI, p. 143.
' ' / i t phrase taken from the Sutra on the burden and the bearer of the burden
( I h i ir Bharah isutra of which then i ral v< ion I'ali version in Samyiitta. 111. p. 2 26: Sanskrit versions it
Kosa, IX, p. 256; Kosavyakhya, p. 706, Tattvasamgraha, 1, p. 130 (cf. S. Schaycr, Kamalasitas Kritik des Pudgalavdda,
RO, VIII, 1932, p. 88); Chinese translations in Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 73), k. 3, p. 19a-b; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 17, p.
631a-632a. - This surra is frequently quoted: Sutralamkara, XVIII, 103, p. 159; Visuddhimagga, II, p. 479, 512;
The arhats are also bhdrasaha, able to bear the burden:
1. In the Buddhadharma, two burdens of qualities must be borne: that of the interest of oneself (svakartha)
and that of the interests of others (parartha). The interest of oneself is destruction of all the impurities
(sarvasravaksayd), [82a] definitive deliverance (vimukti) and other similar qualities (guna). The interest of
others is faith (sraddlid), discipline (sFla), equanimity (upeksd), concentration (samddhi), wisdom (prajnd)
and other similar qualities. The arhats are called bhdrasaha because they are capable of bearing their own
burden and that of others.
2. Furthermore, just as a vigorous ox (go-) can carry heavy loads, so these arhats who have acquired the
faculties (indriya), the powers (bala), an awakening (avabodha) and a path (mdrga) that is free of
defilements (anasrava) can bear the heavy load of the Buddhadharma. This is why they are called
hlidrasalia.
9. ANUPRAPTASVAKARTHA
Sutra: They have assured their personal interest.
Sastra: What is meant by personal interest (svakartha) and personal disadvantage?
1. Personal interest is the practice of the good dharmas (kusaladharmacaryd). Personal disadvantage is the
opposite, irreligion (adharma).
2. Furthermore, faith (sraddhd), discipline (sila), equanimity (upeksd), concentration (samddhi), wisdom
(prajnd) and the other qualities (guna) surpass all wealth (dhana), win present, future and eternal happiness
(ihaparatranityasukha), and lead to the city of immortality (amrtanagara). For these three reasons, they
are called personal interest. Thus it is said in the Sin p 'in (Sraddhavarga):^°°
The person who acquires faith and wisdom
Possesses the foremost of treasures.
All the other wealth of the world
Is not equal to this treasure of the Dharma.
3. Furthermore, the attainment of present happiness (ihasukhd), future happiness (paratrasukha) and the
eternal happiness of nirvana (nirvdnanityasukha) is called personal interest. The rest is personal
disadvantage. A stanza says:
Nyayavartitika (Bibl. Ind.), p. 342. - European interpretations: L. de La Vallee Poussin, JRAS, 1901, p. 308; JA, 1902, p.
266; Opinions, p. 83 sq.; Nirvana, P- 36; Minayeff, Recherches, p. 225; E. Hardy, JTAS, 1901, p. 573; Keith, Buddhist
Plu/o opli\ p chayci i / tel ' > > , Crakow, 1932, p
3°8 Yh s Sraddhavarga is one of the chapters of the Dharmapada. The stanza cited here is missing in the Pali
Dhammapada but occurs in the Sanskrit Udanavarga, X, 9, p. 116: yo jivaloke lahiiatc sraddliani.... asyetare dhanam.
This also occurs in the I ibetan Udanavarga, X, 9, p. 36: mk/ui i i \ i
zad.
The world knows all kinds of strange doctrines on the path,
It behaves just like [stray] cattle.
It is necessary to seek the right knowledge and doctrine of the path
In order to escape from old age and death and enter into nirvana.
4. Finally, the noble eightfold path (drydstdngika mdrga) and the fruit of the religious life
(srdmanyaphala) are called the personal interest of the arhats. As these five thousand arhats have obtained
the Path and its fruit and enjoy this twofold personal benefit, they are described as anuprdptasvakdrtha.
10. PARIKSENABHAVASAMYOJANA
Sutra: They had completely broken the fetters of existence.
Sdstra: There are three types of existence (bhava): existence [in the world] of desire (kdmabhava),
existence in the world of form (rupabhava) and existence in the formless world (cli upyabhava). By virtue
of actions belonging to the domain of the realm of desire {kdmadhdtvacarakarman), one will be reborn
later in this realm to undergo the retribution of these actions (karmavipdka): this is what is called
kdmabhava, existence [in the world] of desire. [Mutatis mutandis], it is the same for the riipa- and
drupyabhava. That is what is understood by existence.
The arhats have broken the fetters (pariksTnabhavasamyojana) [of this existence]. These fetters
(samyojana) are nine in number: attraction (anunaya), aversion (pratigha), pride (mdna), ignorance
(avidyd), doubt (vicikitsd), wrong view (drsti), unjustified esteem (pardmarsa), avarice (mdtsarya) and
envy (Trsya)." These samyojanas encompass all of existence and this existence encompasses all the
samyojanas. Hence the ｅxpression pariksTnabhavasamyojana.
Question. - The fetters have indeed been broken in the arhats for they have eliminated all the afflictions
(Mesa), but their existence (bhava) cannot be cut . [82b] Indeed as long as they are not nirvanized, they are
still furnished with the five aggregates (skandha), the twelve bases of consciousness (dyatana) and the
eighteen elements of existence (dhdtu).
Answer. - This is not a difficulty, for by mentioning the result [the suppression of existence] here, we mean
to speak of the cause [the suppression of the fetters].
Although the Buddha said: "By giving food, the generous patron (ddnapati) gives five things: life (dyus-),
color (varna), strength (bald), pleasure (sukha) and intelligence (pratibhdna)}^ food does not necessarily
give these five things: there are well-nourished people who die, others who are insufficiently nourished
jsy See Kosa, V, p. 81-84.
i i i i 111 [ x i i i iii
i ii i deti. - Chinese \ cision in Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 24, p.
681a-b; Che che hou wou fou pao king, T 132, vol II, p. 854c.
who nevertheless live. [Usually] food is the cause of the five benefits given; this is why the Buddha said
that by giving food, five things are given. A stanza says:
By withdrawing all food, death is certain.
But even if one eats, death is always possible.
This is why the Buddha has said:
By giving food, five things are given.
Thus also a man can eat "five pounds of gold": although gold is not edible, by means of its power of
purchase, it is the cause of food. This is why one says "eating gold".
The Buddha also said that women are defilers of morality (silamala). Actually, women are not the defilers
of morality; rather, they are the cause (hetu) of defiling of morality and this is why it is said that they are
the defilers of morality.
If a man falls from on high, even before he has reached the ground, it is said that he is dead. Although he
may not be dead [at the moment when he falls], we know that he will die; that is why it is said that he is
dead.
In the same way when the arhats have broken their fetters (samyojana), we know that their existence
(bhava) also will necessarily be broken. That is why it is said that they have completely broken the fetters
of existence (pariksmahhavasamyojana).
11. samyagAjnAsuvimukta
Sutra: They were completely delivered by means of complete knowledge.
Sastra. - Compare the brahmacarin Mo kien t'i (Makandika). His disciples were carrying his corpse
(kunapa) on a litter (khatvd) through the city (nagara). While they were walking (hatta) through the
crowd, they proclaimed: "Those who see the body of Makandika with their eyes will all obtain the path of
purity (visuddhimdrga), all the more so those who will venerate ( vandanti) and honor (pujayanti) it." Many
people believed their words. "1 Having heard of this, the bhiksus addressed the Buddha: "Bhagavat, what
is this about?" The Buddha replied with these stanzas:
To seek for purity in the contemplation of an abject individual
Is neither knowledge nor the true path.
- 5 " 1 The Ahguttara, III, p. 276-277, gives a list of religious orders contemporaneous with the Buddha: Ajivika, Nigantha,
.Ylundasavaka, Jalilaka. Paribhajala, Ylagandika, I cdandika. Avirrhala, Golamaka and Dcvadhammika. T. W. Rhys-
Davids has studied this list and has succeeded in identifying most of these congregations (Dialogues of the Buddha, I, p.
220-221; Buddhist India, p. 14^) Willi i ird to 111 >li indil i h i im nami i probabl J ii d from th nam
of the founder of a corporate body. But all their records have perished and we know nothing of them otherwise." The
pn culpa ig< .i ili lpp i.ll ii thai In >ii 1.1J1! i <n .i lion in known, arc the disciples of the brahmacarin
Magandika who promenaded the corpse of their teacher and promised salvation to those who contemplated it.
When the fetters and afflictions fill the mind,
How could one find the pure path in one single glance?
If one glance sufficed to attain the path,
Of what use would wisdom and the treasury of the qualities be?
It is wisdom and the qualities that lead to purity;
To seek for purity by one glance is not reasonable.
This is why it is said that the arhats are completely liberated by perfect knowledge (samyagajna).
WHY THE ARHATS SURROUND THE BUDDHA
Question. - The arhats who have done what is needed to be done (krtakrtya) should have no need to look
for company. Why then are they always near the Buddha and not elsewhere, so that they save beings?
Answer. - 1 . If all beings of the ten directions without exception should honor the Buddha, the arhats, from
gratitude for the benefits they have received, should [82c] honor him doubly. How is that? These arhats
have received immense qualities (apramanaguna) from the Buddha: knowledge (/nana), destruction of the
fetters (samyojanacheda), increase in the mind of faith {sraddha.cittabahulika.ra). This is why these very
virtuous arhats stay close to the Buddha, to taste the blissful taste of the qualities (gunasukharasa), to
venerate him (pujayati), serve him (satkaroti) and recognize his benefits. Because they surround the
Buddha, their buddha-qualities increase. - The Brahmakayikadevas surround Brahma devaraja, the
Trayastrimsadevas surround Sakra devendra, the asuras surround their god Vaisramana, the minor kings
surround the noble cakravartin king, the sick and the convalescents surround the great physician
(mahdvaidya); in the same way, the arhats keep close to the Buddha and, because they surround him and
venerate him, their buddha-qualities increase.
Question. - The arhats who have done what needed to be done (krtakrtya) and assured their personal
interest (anupraptasvakartha) have no need to listen to the Dharma. Then why is the Buddha accompanied
by five thousand arhats when he preaches the Prajnaparamita?
Answer. - Although the arhats have done what needed to be done, the Buddha wants to put them to the
proof with the doctrine of profound wisdom (gambhiraprajna). Thus: "The Buddha said to Sariputra:^"^
- In the Po lo yen king (Parayana), in the question of A k'i t'o (Ajitapanhe), it is said (Suttanipata, v. 1038):
There are all kinds of aspirants ( saiksa)
392 Extract from the Bhutasutta of the Samyutta, II, p. 47 sq. (tr. Rh. D., Kindred Sayings, II, p. 36; tr. Geiger, II, p. 69
sq.); Chinese translation in Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 345), k. 14, p. 95b-c:
Ekam samayam Bliagara Sarattliiyain viharati... ayasina Sariputto tunhiahosi.
The stanza from the Parayana explained in the sutra is taken from the Suttanipata, v. 1038. It is also cited in the
Nettipakarana, p. 17 and the Jatakas, IV, p. 266.
And people who have experienced the truth (samkhydtadharma).
The doctrine practiced by these people,
I would like that you to tell it to me precisely.
First, what is an aspirant (saiksa) and what is a person who has experienced the truth (samkhydtadharma)?
But Sariputra remained silent. Three times the Buddha asked him the same question, three times Sariputra
remained silent. Then, to prompt him to the right answer, the Buddha said to Sariputra:
- That which arises (bhutam idam)....
Sariputra continued:
- Bhagavat, that which arises... that which arises must also perish (yad bhutam tad nirodhadharman iti). He
who practices the teaching of the arising [and the destruction] of the conditioned (samskrta) is called
saiksa. But the one who has found the teaching of the non-production of things (anutpddadharma) by
means of wisdom is called Samkhyatadharma.
This surra has been cited at length here.
2. Furthermore, the arhats stay close to the Buddha and listen to his doctrine because those who have not
yet attained the impure or pure dhyanas (sasravanasravasamddhi) wish to attain them, and those who have
already attained them wish to deepen them.
3. Furthermore, [the arhats surround the Buddha] to enjoy the bliss of his presence (abhimukhatasukha).
Thus, in the Nan t'o kia king (Nandakasutra),3"3 j t ; s sa jd: "j us t now t am listening to the Dharma."
4. Furthermore, the arhats who stay close to the Buddha can never get their fill of listening to the Dharma.
Thus in the P'i lou t'i kia king (Pilotikasuiia), Sariputra says [83a] to Pilotika:-'" 4 "In my Dharma, one
never gets enough of listening to the doctrine."
5. Furthermore, if the Buddha, the great teacher (mahasdstri) himself listens attentively to the Dharma
preached by his disciples, it is not necessary to ask why the arhats, quite perfect (krtkrtya) though they may
be, in turn listen to the Dharma [preached by the Buddha]. If a satiated person starts to eat again when he
finds exquisite food, how could a famished man not eat it? This is why the arhats, although they have done
what needed to be done (krtakrtya), always stay close to the Buddha to hear the Dharma.
6. Finally, the Buddha as well as the arhats dwell (viharati) in the state of deliverance (yimuktidharma).
Endowed with these dharmas of dwelling (vihdradharmasamprayukta), they are surrounded (parivrnvanti)
and mutually adorned (alamkurvanti). Thus it is said in the Tchan fan p'i yu king (Candanopamasutra):™^
393 Probably this is the Nandakasutta of the Samyutta, V, p. 398-390; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 833), k. 30, p. 213c-214a:
Nandaka, a minister of the Licchavis, was listening to a sermon of the Buddha in the ICutagarasalapartisnat Vaisali when
it was announced that his bath was ready. He answered: "Enough of outer baths! ! will be content with this inner bath
which is the goodness of the Blessed one" (alain dani etena.... idam Bhagavati pasado).
J '^ the parivrajaka Pilotika was a declared supporter of the Buddha. He appears in the ( / i opan
Majjhima, I, p. 175; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 146), k. 36, p. 656a.
"When there is a forest of candana (sandalwood), the erandas (Ricin) surround it; When there is a forest of
erandas, the candanas surround it. If there are candanas, the candanas are considered to be the forest; if
there are erandas, they serve as the entourage (parivdra)."^"® ft j s the same for the Buddha and the arhats.
The Buddha abides (viharati) in the good dharmas (kusalaclluiiina) and in deliverance (vimukti) and so do
the arhats. Endowed with the dharmas of abiding {vihdradharmasamanvdgata), they surround and adorn
one another mutually. The Buddha surrounds the great assembly {mahdsamgha) like Sumeru, king of the
mountains, is surrounded by ten precious mountains, like the white king of the elephants in rut
{pdndaragandhahastin) is surrounded by white elephants in rut, like the king of the lions (simha) is
surrounded by lions. In the same way the Buddha, a field of merit (lokdnuttara), is surrounded and
accompanied by his disciples.
WHY ANANDA IS NOT AN ARHAT
Sutra: Except for Ananda who, being on the level of the saiksas, was [just] a stream-enterer {ekapudgalam
stlulpayitvtl yacl uhlyusmananta Anandam saiksam srotatlpannam ).
Sdstra: Question. - Why does it say 'except for Ananda'?
Answer. - Because Ananda is not among the arhats whom we have just praised above. Why? He is of the
rank of saiksa and has not yet eliminated desire (yitardgd).
Question. - The venerable Ananda is the third patriarch {deary a), head of the great assembly;-'"' for
numberless kalpas he planted the seeds of nirvana {nirvana btja); he always stays near the Buddha; he is
the keeper of the baskets of the Dharma {dharmapitakadhara). How is it that this venerable one, who ha
with sharp faculties {tiksnendriya), has been able to come so far without having eliminated desire and is not
yet a saiksa?
Answer. - 1. The venerable Ananda, from the beginning, had made the following vow: "I wish to be the
foremost {agra) of those who have heard much {bahusruta) ."° [On the other hand], because of their
buddha-dharmas, the arhats who have done what needed to be done {krtakrtya) can no longer serve or
venerate anyone. Having accomplished the 'grand business' in the Buddha- dharma, [namely] the
■'" 5 There is a Tchan t'an chou king (C andanasutra), T 805, vol. XVII, p. 750, translated by an anonymous author during
the eastern Han dynasty (25-220 AD) but the phrase cited here does not occur there.
3 "° An obscure comparison the intention of which is to show how the Buddha and the arhats, w ithrmi distinction of rank,
i hered in the forest i uli I n 1 , i h Hi! i j In th thi k forest, thci i ipal i I i iii I i in
although as trees are of unequal height, they are equal as members of the forest. In the same way, among (lie monks, old
or young, distinctions should not be made."
™' Before hi ii ith I imuni i [trusted Kasyapa to watch over his doctrine; later, Kasyapa transmitted the Dharma to
Ananda. For these patriarchs, see Przyluski, . i soka, chap. II, p. 44-53.
398 According to the Ahguttara, I, p. 24, and the stories of the first Council (Przyluski, Concile, p. 39, 210, 225, 229).
Ananda became the foremost of those who have heart! much.
destruction of the afflictions {klesaprahdna), they remain seated with the Buddha on the palanquin of
dcli\ crancc ( vimuktikhutvu).
2. Furthermore, the sthavira Ananda, who has listened, retained and meditated on all kinds of sutras,-'""
has vast wisdom (prajna), whereas his concentration of mind (cittasamgraha) is average. Yet both of these
qualities are necessary to obtain the state [of arhat which consists of] destruction of the impurities. This is
why the sthavira Ananda is [still] just a stream-enterer.
3. Furthermore, out of love for the Buddha's service, Ananda was his servant (upa h Irak, i l!l ! ind h
said to himself: "If I should attain the state that involves the destruction of the impurities (dsravaksaya) too
soon, I would distance myself from the Buddha and I could no longer be his servant." This is why Ananda,
[83b] who could have been an arhat, had decided not to take up this state.
4. Furthermore, [the conditions] of place, time and individuals not having come together, where and how
could he have compiled the Dharma? The thousand arhats [who must constitute the Council] were not on
the Grdhrakutaparvata, the place fixed [for the Council]; the time of the Bhagavat's death had not yet come,
the sthavira P'o k'i tseu (Vrjiputra) was not present. This is why the sthavira Ananda does not destroy his
impurities. In order that Ananda be able to destroy them and [thus participate in the Council], three
conditions were necessary: the Bhagavat must die, the assembly that is to be entrusted with compiling the
Dharma must be assembled, and Vrjiputra must address [to Ananda] the official exhortations
(clharmavacla)™i
5. Finally, the venerable Ananda is in no way comparable to other men in his disgust (samvega) for the
things of the world (lokadharma). From birth to birth, Ananda is of royal lineage (rdjamamsa),2 his
beauty (saundarya) is incomparable (anupamd) and his merits (punya) are immense (apramdnd). A close
relative of the Bhagavat, he always accompanied the Buddha as servant (upasthdyaka). Inevitably he said
to himself: "I am the Buddha's servant, I know the precious baskets of Dharma (dharmapitaka). I am not
■"" The depository of the holy words, Ananda received and retains the totality of the surras (cf. Przyluski, Concile, p. 39-
40); according to the Theragatha, v. 1024, p.92, he had learned 82,000 dhammas from the Buddha and 2,000 from his
colleagues.
400 ^y e ij ave seen a b ove how Ananda became the upasthdyaka of the Buddha.
401 It was because of these exhortations of Vrjiputra (Vajjiputta) that, after the Buddha's nirvana, Ananda made the
c lib rts necessary to become arhat. Sec Sseu fen liu, T 1428, k. 54, p. 967a; Ken pen chouo... tsa che, T 1451, k. 39, p.
406a (cf. T. Rockhill, Life, p. 155); Kia cho kie king, T 2027, p. 6b; Legend ofAsoka in T 2042, k. 4, p. 1 13a; T 2043, k.
6, p. 151a. The stanza of exhortation addressed to Ananda by Vrjiputra is told in all these sources with some variations.
The Pali translation is known to us by stanza 119 of the Theragatha, p. 17 (tr. Rh. D., Brethren, p. 106):
Kukkli in a >< , Awi kini 1 'ihilika k i liu I oi li ilso found in urn utta, I, p. 199, where it
is addressed to Ananda by a forest deity. See also the Chinese versions of the Samyukta, T 99 (no. 1341), k. 50, p. 369c;
T 100 (no. 361), k. 16, p. 491b.
4 "^ According to the Apadana, p. 53, in the course of his lifetimes, Ananda was a king fifty-eight times:
Atthapanndsakkh tun < c ikk ivatti.... mahiyd kdrayissati.
He actually appears as a king in a scries pf Jatakas, the list of which may be found in Malalasekara, I, p. 267.
afraid to let to let go of the destruction of the impurities {dsaravaksayd) [when the time comes]." With this
motivation, he was not in a hurry [to become an arhat].
ORIGIN OF THE NAME ANANDA
Question. - What is the origin of the venerable Ananda's name? Is it of ancient origin {puranaf! Is it a
name given to him by his parents? Does it rest on [good] reasons?
Answer. - This name is of ancient origin; it was also given to him by his parents and it rests on good
reasons.
1. Why is this name of ancient origin?
a. In one of his earlier lives, the [present] Buddha Che kia wen (Sakyamuni) was a potter (kumbhakard)
called Ta kouang ming (Prabhasa). At that time, there was a Buddha called Sakyamuni; his disciples were
called Cho lifou (Sariputra), Mou k'ien lien (Maudalyayana) and .4 nan (Ananda). ^3 The Buddha and his
disciples went to the house of the potter to spend the night. on that occasion, the potter gave three things: a
seat made of straw (trindsana), a lamp (dipa) and honey syrup (madhumaireya) and he made a gift of them
to the Buddha and the community of monks (bhiksuscinighci)™^ Then he made the following vow
(pranidhi): "Later, after five unfortunate generations of old age (jam), sickness (vyddhi) and death
(marana), I will be Buddha. I will be called Sakyamuni like the present Buddha and my disciples will bear
the names of the present disciples of the Buddha." By virtue of this vow of the Buddha, [our hero] is
named Ananda.
b. Furthermore, from birth to birth, Ananda had made the following vow: "Among the disciples of the
Buddha, I will be the foremost of those who have heard much (bahusrutdndm agrah), by the name
Ananda."
c. Finally, from birth to birth, by the virtue of patience {ksdntipdtamitd), Ananda had expelled all hatred
(dvesa); this is why he was always reborn very beautiful (sundara). Because of this beauty which made all
who saw him rejoice, his parents named him Ananda which, in the language of the Ts'in, means 'Joy'.
This was his name according to the old traditions.
403 According to the Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 177, p. 892a, and the Kosa, IV, p. 228, the ancient Sakyamuni was the first
Buddha whom the present Sakyamuni venerated. - At that time, the latter was a pott mam d Prabha i f. ICosa ill. i
p. 432: Prabhasanamna .... pranidhanam krtam. - The Mahavastu, I, p. 47, also is aware of a buddha Sakyamuni who
lived an infinite number of numberless kalpas ago. also from fCapilavastu. and who received the generosity of the present
Sakyamuni, then a merchant (sresthin).
4 " 4 For more details, see k. 12, p. 150b: "The buddha Sakyamuni, then in his first production of the mind of
enlightenment (prathainacittotpada), was the king named Kou < < tiiiv. (1 i ihlu i) he was seeking buddhahood and
practi 1 1 ncro lty. When he was reborn, he was the potter who gave some bath utensils and honey syrup to the buddha
Sakyamuni and his disciples. Then, when he was reborn, he was the wife of a great sresthin who offered a lamp to the
buddha Kiao tcli'cn jo (ICaiindinya) All of these are what is called the lesser gifts of the bodhisattva."
2. Why did his parents give him the name Ananda?
once there was a king of the solar clan (aditagotra) named Che tseu kin (Simhahanu). This king had four
sons: 1) Tsing fan (Suddhodana), 2) Po fan (Suklodana), 3) Hou fan (Dronodana), 4) Kan lou wei
(Amritarasa). ^
King Suddodana had two sons: 1) Fo, the Buddha, 2) Nant'o (Nanda). ""
[83c] King Suklodana had two sons: 1) Po t'i (Bhadrika), 2) Y'i cha (Tisya).
King Dronodana had two sons: 1) T'ip'o ta to (Devadatta), 2) A nan (Ananda).
King Amritadana had two sons: 1) Mo ho nan ( Mahanaman), 2) A ni lou t'eou (Anirudda).
As for his daughter, Amritarasa, she had a son called Chep'o lo (Danapala)™'
Then the bodhisattva Si ta t'o (Siddhartha) grew up; renouncing the state of cakrvartin king, he went forth
from home (pravrajita) in the middle of the night and went to the country of Ngeou leou pi lo (Uruvilva)
on the banks of the river Ni lien chan (Nairanjana) where he practiced asceticism (duska.raca.rya) for six
years. But king Suddhodana, who loved his son, regularly sent messengers to ask about him and bring back
news of him: "Has my son attained the path? Is he sick? Is he dead?"40° The messenger came back to tell
the king: "The bodhisattva is nothing but skin, bones and sinews to hold it all together. He is very weak.
Today or tomorrow will be the end of him." The king experienced great sadness at these words; he plunged
into the ocean of grief: "My son has renounced becoming a cakravartin king and now he will not succeed
in becoming buddha. Is he then going to die without attaining anything?" The king grieved greatly.
4U3 n cvc mc jyippg adopts the genealogy of the Mahavasru I, p. 351.13, 355.19: Rt
i > ii Hi i | i iiing tsi king, T 190, k. 3,
p. 676a gives the same information. - on the other hand, the .Ylulasarvastivadin Vinaya (Ren pen chouo ... p'. seng che, T
1450, k. 2, p. 195a; Rockhill, Life, , p. 13. attributes four sons and four daughters to Simhahana: Suddhodana. Suklodana,
Dronodana, Amrtodana, Suddha, Sukla, Drona, Amrta. - According to the Singhalese chronicles (Drpavamsa, III, 45, p.
29: Mahavamsa. 11, 20, p 1-!). Sihahanu had five sons and two daughters: Suddhodana, Dhotodana, Sakkodana,
Sukkodana, Amitodana, Amita, 1'amita. - The genealogy proposed by the Che eul ycou king, T 195, p. 146c requires the
greatest stretch of the imagination.
4uo Suddhodana had two main wives: Maya w ho gave birth to the Buddha and Mahaprajapati who bore Nanda.
4U/ This genealogy is to be compared with th i i ifth *Iula a i "p idin Vinaya, T 1450, k. 2, p. 105a:
Suddhodana had two sons: the Bhagavat and Nanda.
Suklodana had two sons: Tisya and Bhadrika.
Dronodana had two sons: .Vlahanaman and Aniruddha
Amrtodana had two sons: Ananda and Devadatta
Suddha had one son: Suprabuddha
Sukla had one son: Mallika
Drona had one son: Cheng li
Amrta had one son: Mahabala
40s p rom the Mahavasru II, p. 207-209 and the Dulwa (Rockhill, Life, p. 28-29, we know that Suddodana sent messengers
to his son every day to gather news about him.
But the bodhisattva, renouncing asceticism, partook of the milk soup (pdyasa) of a hundred flavors, "
and his body recovered its strength. Having bathed in the waters of the Nairanjana river, he went to the
Bodhi tree, sat down on the diamond seal (vajrdsand) and proclaimed the following oath: "I will remain
seated with crossed legs until I realize omniscience; until I have attained omniscience, I will not rise from
this seat." 410
Then king Mara, at the head of a troop of eighteen kotis of warriors, came to the Bodhisattva and tried to
bring about his ruin. But by the power of his wisdom (prajnabala), the Bodhisattva destroyed Mara's army.
Mara retired, vanquished, and said to himself: "Since the Bodhisattva is invincible, I will torment his
father." He went to king Suddhodana and said to him slyly: "Your son died today in the second part of the
night (pastime yame).*-* At these words, the king was stunned and collapsed on his bed like a fish on hot
sand. * ^ Weeping miserably, he utred this stanza:
Ajita lied [in his predictions],
The good omens are no longer verified.
My son had the propitious name Siddhartha
But none of these goals has been realized.
Then the deity of the Bodhi tree (bodhivrksadeata), Ta houan hi (Ananda?) 41 ^ by name, came to king
Suddhodana holding a celestial flower, and said the following stanza to him:
4U " This was offered to him by one or several maidens of the village of Senapati or Senani. Some texts mention only one
maidi .1 ujata (Nidanakatha, p Dhamni] ! ii h I 1 1 11 In, 11, ] 206) .1 I nd I da (1 ud Hi nil
XII, v. 109; T 189, k. 8, p. 639). - In other sources, the offering was made by two maidens, Nanda and Nandabala (T 184,
k. 2, p. 469c-470a; T 190, k. 25, p. 770c; Ken pen chou ... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 5, p. 121c; Rockhill, Life, p. 30;
Divyavadana, p. 3 ( >2), - In ihc Lalitavistara, p. 267 sq., Sujata is accompanied by nine friends.
410 The words of this oath are given in many sources: Nidanakatha, p. 71: Kdmam taco ca naharu ca atthi .... pullunikuni
hhiiulissaini. Buddhacarila, Xll, v. 120/ Bliiiiadmi tdvas naitad... ydvat ktrtakrtatdm. - Lalitavistara, p. 289: lliasanc
susyatu me sariram.... naivasanat kdyam atas calisyate. - The oath is not mentioned in the Ariyapariyesanasiitla,
(.Vlajjhima, I, p. 160175) where Sakyamuni himself relates (lie efforts he made to attain enlightenment: on the oilier hand,
we find them in the corresponding sutra of the Tchong a Iran, T 26 (no. 204), k. 56, p. 777al2.
411 In the Mahavastu, II, p. 207-209 and the Nidanakatha, p. 67. it is said that the messengers (or the gods) seeing Ihc
Bodhisattva deep in dsphdnaka meditation and nol breathing, thought that he was dead and announced his death to
Suddhodana. But ihc king refused lo believe them. - The Vlpps represents a different tradition here.
412 The same comparison in '.he Sanskrit Udanavarga p. 10, which compares the unfortunates to fish cooked in hot water
(matsyu ivativa vipacyanuindh).
413 In the P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 125, p. 655b, the deity of the Bodhi tree is called Ti yu (Satyavac?); she seduced king
Pusyamitra who was persecuting Buddhism. - In tin 1 dil ivistara, p. 2 . •<» odluvrksa itti 1 foui ai nui ib 1
Venn, Valgu, Sumanas and Ojapati. In ihc same place, there is a detailed description of the bodhi tree.
The anecdote telling how Suddhodana, deceived b\ Mara who announced ihc death of his son to him has a parallel in a
pi igc from tin dulasarvasti idin Vinaya, oi hich the follo\ ing 1 1 translation
Ken pen chouo... p'o sen;/ chc, T 1450, k. 5, p. 124b-c: When Mara papimal was conquered b\ (he Buddha, his bow flew
from his hands and his banner fell to the ground; his palace was completely destroyed. King Mara, vexed and
disappointed, disappeared along with 36 kotis of warriors. He went to Kapilavastu and said to the crowd: "The
bodhisattva Sakyamnni who was practicing asceticism {duskaracarya) and who was sitting on the diamond seat
(vajrasana) on a pile of grass, has just died." Hearing these words, king Suddhodana. along with his household, ministers
and officials, were thrown into consternation as if they had been burned in a fire. The inhabitants and the three great
queens (devi), Gopika, etc., remembering the qualities of the Bodhisattva, sank down to the ground lamenting: their faces
were washed and they were slowly brought back to life. They wept ceaselessly. The servants and slaves encouraged and
massaged them, but their sadness was without limit, 'then the deity Pure Faith (Suddhasraddha), seeing thai Mara had lied
and knowing the Bodhisattva had attained enlightenment, was very joyous and declared everywhere: "You must know
that Sakyamnni is not dead but lias attained anuttarasamyaksambodhi." Then king Suddhodana, his entourage and all the
citizens of Kapilavastu, hearing this news, leapt with joy. V'asodhara, learning that the Bhagavat, the Bodhisattva, had
iiiihvd upremi ! no I d < |o full i < I nih to a son. King Dronodana also had a son. At that moment there was a
lunar eclipse; king Suddhodana, seeing this stroke of good fortune, fell great joy. He ordered the city to remove all rubble,
to wash the ground with sandalwood (candana) perfumed water, to place incense burners at the crossroads and to burn
precious perfumes, to hang multicolored banners in the streets and to spread fresh [lowers on the ground. He set up free
clinics at the four gates of the city and in the streets. At the eastern gate, gifts were gathered together; sramanas,
brahmanas., tirthikas, brahmacarins, as well as the poor, the orphans ami the need) came to beg, and all kinds of gifts
were given to them. It was the same at the southern, w estern and northern gales and the city streets. The king joined his
ministers to give a name to Yasodara's son. The servants of the harem i'irsi wished io give him the name of the king, but
as the moon was hidden by Rahu at the birth of this child, ii was fitting to call him Rahula. In his turn, king Dronodana,
for his own son, gave the same gifts as above. He gathered his relatives to give a name for his child and asked them by
w hat name they should call it. His relatives replied: on the day of his birth, the citizens of Kapilavastu rejoiced
(ananda); therefore he should be called Ananda."
Comparison of this passage from the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya with the information of the Mpps poses a series of
interesting questions regarding the parents and the date of birth of Ananda and Rahula.
We must give up trying to know who is the father of Ananda. Three names are suggested:
1) Amrtodana in the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya (T 1450, k. 2, p. 105a), the Dulwa (Rockhill, Life, P. 13, 32), the Che eul
ycon king (T 195, p. 146c), the Sumahgala, II, p. 492 and the Manoratha, I, p. 292. - 2) Dronodana in the
Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya (T 1450, k. 5, p. 124b-c) and the Mpps (T1509, k. 3, p. 83c). - 3) Suklodana in the Mahavastu,
III, p. 176.14.
According to the Mpps and the passage of the Mulasarv astiv adin V inaya translated in the present note. Ananda was born
on ilse day thai Sakyamnni attained enlightenment. ■ on the othci hand, we see Ananda participating in the test of skill in
tin hi r , ii 'i In n il \amuni was still an adolescent; cf Lalitavistara, p. 152; Fo pen hing rsi king, T 190,
k. 13, p. 710b. - According to some late sources, such as the Burmese biography (Bigandct, p. 43), Ananda was born on
the same day as the Buddha (cf. Kern, Histoire, I, p. 28; Manual, p. 14); however he is not included in the list of
coaetanei of the Buddha given by the Nidanakatha, p. 54.
According io the Nidanakatha, p. 60, Rahula was born on the day that Sakyamnni, his father, left home, ami the future
Buddha went to kiss him before leaving (ibid., p. 62). Bui il is generally agreed that Yasodara conceived Rahula a short
lime before the departure of the Buddha (Mahavastu, il, p. 1? ( ); Rockhill, Life, p. 24), but gave birth Io him six years later
on the day that the Buddha attained enlightenment. Cf. Tsa pao tsang king, T 203 (no. 27), k. 10, p. 496b (tr. Chavannes,
Your son has attained the Path,
He has scattered the army of Mara.
His brilliance is like the rising sun
He lights up the ten directions.
The king replied: "First a god came to tell me that my son was dead, and now you come to tell me that he
has conquered Mara and attained the Path. These two pieces of news are contradictory; whom should I
believe?"
The deity of the tree answered: "This is the truth (satya), it is not a lie (mrsavdda). The god who previously
came to tell you the lie that you son was dead was Mara; full of jealousy iirsya), he came to make you
grieve. Today all the devas and nagas offer [your son] flowers (puspa) and perfumes (gandha); they are
hanging silk cloths from the sky (akasa). Your son's body emits a brilliant light that fills heaven and earth."
At these words, the king was freed from all his sadness and said: "Although my son may have renounced
becoming a cakravartin king, today he has become the king who will turn the wheel of the Dharma
(dharmacakrapiavaitaka). He has surely attained great benefit and lost nothing." The king's mind
experienced great joy (ananda). At that moment a messenger arrived from the palace of king Dronodana to
say to king Suddhodana: "Your noble brother has had a son." The king's mind felt great joy. He said: "This
day is highly propitious; it is a day of joy", Addressing the messenger, he said: "This child should be called
Ananda."
That is why his parents called him Ananda.
3. How does this name rest on good reasons?
Ananda was handsome (abhirupa) and graceful (rasmadika) like a clear mirror (adarsd). His body was
pure. When women saw him, their passions (kdmacitta) were aroused, 4 this is why the Buddha ordered
Ananda to wear a covering over his shoulders (amsavastra)r^ \ s he gladdened the mind {citta) and the
eyes (caksus) of all who saw him, he was called Ananda, 'Great Joy'.
on this subject, the Tsao louen tcho tsan (Sastrakrtstuti) says:
His face is like the full moon,
His eye like a blue lotus flower.
The water of the ocean of the Buddha's Dharma
Flows in the mind of Ananda.
Contes, III, p. 136); Ken pen chouo ... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 5, p. 124c; Rockhill, Life, p. 32; Ta tche tou louen, T 1509,
k. 17, p. 182b.
414 when the palace women were invited by Prasenajit to choose a preacher amongsl the eightj disciples of the Buddha,
iln unanimously cho Vnanda (Jalaka, I, p. 382).
415 We know that the Buddhist monks had their right shoulder uncovered. Cf. Fouchcr, . in Grci o-hoiiddliiqiie, II, p. 270,
who takes as proof the Sutralamkara, tr. Hubcr, p. 65-66.
He brings forth great joy
In the minds and to the eyes of those who see him.
Those who come to see the Buddha
He introduces without any flaw in ceremonial
416
Thus although Ananda could have attained the state of arhat, he did not destroy the impurities in order [to
continue] to serve and honor the Buddha. Because of these great qualities (guna) and although he himself
was not asaiksa, he dwelt among the asaiksas; although he had not eliminated desire, he resided among
those who had eliminated it (vitaraga). Also, since among the five thousand members of the assembly, he
was not really an arhat, the text says that [all were arhats] except for Ananda.
41b Ananda managed interviews with the Buddha and when n< u nl i i n ! suable visitors. Cf. Malalasekei a,
I, p. 252.
CHAPTER VII: THE FOUR ASSEMBLIES
Sutra: The Buddha was also accompanied by five hundred bhiksunis (nuns), five hundred upasakas (lay
men) and five hundred upasikas (lay women); all had seen the holy truths (pancamdtrair bhiksuiusatair
upcisakair upclsikahhis cu stirclluim sin van- drstaryasatyaih).
Sastra: Question. - There were five thousand bhiksus; why did the other assemblies each consist of five
hundred members?
[84b] Answer. - In women (stri), wisdom (prajfia) is often deficient (hrasva) while the afflictions (klesa)
and defilements (mala) are serious (guru). Almost always seeking happiness and pleasure (nandiraga),
they are rarely capable of breaking their fetters (samyojana) and obtaining deliverance (vimoksa). And so
the Buddha said: "This teaching of dependent origination (pratityasamutpdda) is supreme (parama),
profound (gambhira) and difficult to grasp (durlabha), but the destruction of all the afflictions
(sarvaklesaksaya), renunciation (vairdgya) and the attainment of nirvana (nirvtintidliigama) are even more
difficult to find (durdrsa). That is why women attain it more rarely than the bhiksus."
Having families, the upasakas and the upasfkas have impure (asuddha) minds; unable to destroy their
impurities (asrava), they are content with understanding the four noble truths (dryasatya) and acting as
aspirants (saiksa). Thus a stanza says:
Despite its splendid body, the peacock (barhin, mayura)
Cannot fly as far as the swan (hamsa).
In the same way, the layman (avaddtavasana), despite his wealth and nobility,
Is not the equal of the monk (pravrajita) whose qualities are eminent.
Thus, although the bhiksunis have gone forth from home (pravrajita) and renounced worldly activities
(lokakarman), their wisdom is deficient. This is why there are only five hundred bhiksunis who have
attained arhathood (arhati). - In the two lay assemblies, [upasakas and upasikas] who live at home and are
busy there, those who have found the Path are rare (cf. the variant: to tao tcho chao). Each of them consists
also of five hundred members.
Question. - Why does the sutra not praise these three communities as it has the five thousand arhats?
Answer. - Because the praise of the great assembly [of bhiksus] is also valid for the others. Moreover, if
the three communities were praised separately, the heretics (tfrthika) would ask why the bhiksunis [in
particular] were praised and would slander them. If the lay people were praised, they would say it was to
flatter them. That is why the sutra does not praise them.
Question. - In other Mahayanasutras, the Buddha is accompanied by a great assembly of bhiksus
numbering eight thousand, sixty thousand or a hundred thousand. Yet this Mahaprajnaparamitasutra is the
most important of the sutras. Thus it is said in the Tchou lei p'in (Parindanaparivarta). * ' "Losing the other
sutras as a whole is a light sin (dpatti), but losing a single word (pada) of the Prajnaparamita is a very
grave sin." From this, we know that the Prajnaparamita is the most important sutra. A very numerous
assembly would be needed at this most important surra; why is the number of its auditors (srdvaka)
restricted to five thousand bhiksus and to the groups of five hundred each of bhiksums, upasakas and
upasikas?
Answer. - 1 . If the size of the crowd of listeners is restricted, it is because the sutra is very profound
(gambhira) and hard to fathom (durvigdhya). In the same way, when a king (rdjan) possesses real jewels
(ratna), he does not tell this to ordinary people (prthagjana), but he does announce it to great individuals,
his confidants. When a king holds council, he deliberates with his ministers, his confidants, his experts, but
he does not admit the lesser officials.
2. Furthermore, 6500 individuals [who make up the audience of the Prajnaparamitasutra] 4 '" have all
attained the Path; although they do not understand all of the profound Prajnaparamita, nevertheless they
believe in it and are able to acquire the fourfold faith of pure knowledge (andsrava avetyaprasdda).^ In
other sutras, the auditors (snh aha ) arc more numerous, but not all have obtained the Path.
[84c] Finally, we have praised the ten million arhats amongst whom the five thousand best were selected. It
was the same for the bhiksums, the upasakas, and upasikas. Being difficult to find (durlabha), these
'victorious ones' (jina) are not numerous.
41' The Parindanaparivarta or 'Chapter of the Final Will' is the 90th and last chapter of the Pancavi sati, T
221, k. 20, p. 146b-c; T 223. k. 27, p. 423c-424a.
418 Namely, 5000 bhik us plus the three groups of 500 people in the other assemblies.
419 Faith relating to the Buddha, the Dharma, the Sa gha and the moralities dear to the saints (cf. Kosa, VI,
p.292).
CHAPTER VIII: THE BODHISATTVAS
THE PLACE OF THE BODHISATTVAS IN THE ASSEMBLY
Sutra: The Buddha was also accompanied by bodhisattva-mahasattvas (bodhisattvair nuiluisattvcis ca).
Sastra: Question. - If the order of seniority is followed, the bodhisattvas come first, then the bhiksus, the
bhiksums, the upasakas and the upasikas, for the bodhisattvas come right after the Buddha. If the reverse
order were followed, first would be placed the upasikas, then the upasakas. the bhiksunTs. the bhiksus and
finally the bodhisattvas. Why are the bhiksus mentioned first here, then the three assemblies [bhiksunl,
upasaka, upaslka] and then, last, the bodhisattvas?
Answer. - 1. Although the bodhisattvas come right after the Buddha, they have not destroyed all their
afflictions (Mesa); this is why the arhats are spoken of first. In the arhats, wisdom (prajna) is small, but
they are already ripened (paripakva); in the bodhisattvas, wisdom is rich, but they have not destroyed their
afflictions. That is why the arhats are spoken of first.
There are two kinds of Buddhist doctrine, the esoteric (abhisamdhidharma) and the exoteric
(prakasitadharma). In the exoteric, the Buddhas, pratyekabuddhas and [85a] arhats are all fields of merit
(punyaksetra) because their afflictions (Mesa) have been destroyed without residue. In the esoteric, it is
said that the bodhisattvas have obtained acquiescence in the teaching of the non-arising of dharmas
(anutpattikadharmaksdnti), that their defilements are destroyed, that they possess the six superknowledges
(abhijna) and that they work for the benefit of beings. It is from the exoteric point of view that the sutra
places the arhats before the bodhisattvas.
2. Furthermore, by the power of skillful means (upaya), the bodhisattvas appear, enter into the five
destinies (gati), experience the five passions (panca kdmaguna) with the view of influencing beings. ™ If
they were placed above the arhats, gods and men would be worried and have doubts. This is why they are
mentioned after the arhats.
Question. - That is the reason they are placed after the arhats. But why are they placed after the upasakas
and upasikas?
Answer. - 1. Although the four assemblies have not completely destroyed their impurities (ksinasrava),
they will destroy them without further delay; this is why they are presented under the name of auditors
(srdvakasamgha) .
420 p or t jj e sa ivation of beings, the bodhisattvas assume diverse forms of
(nirmanakaya) to work for the benefit of all. See references in Sam„raha, p. 42.
To place the bodhisattvas among these four assemblies would be unsuitable. Thus the bhiksuhfs, who have
received innumerable disciplinary rules (samvara),^ should come after the bhiksus but before the
novices (sramanera); however, as the Buddha did not bestow any ceremonial on them, they come after the
novices. It is the same for the bodhisattvas: they should be placed at the head of the three classes of saiksas,
but as that would not be suitable, they are placed at the tail end.
2. Furthermore, some claim that, because of their wisdom (prajnd) and their qualities (guna), the
bodhisattvas surpass the arhats and pratyekabuddhas and for this reason they are mentioned separately.
Question. - In the sutras of the sravakas [i.e., the Lesser Vehicle], four assemblies only are spoken of. Why
is an assembly of bodhisattvas added here separately?
Answer. - There are two types of Path (mdrga): that of the sravakas [Lesser Vehicle] and that of the
bodhisattvas [Greater Vehicle]. The four assemblies, bhiksu, bhiksunl, upasaka, upaslka, form the path of
the sravakas; the bodhisattva-mahasattvas form the path of the bodhisattvas. For this reason, in the texts of
the sravakas, the beginning of the sutra does not say that the Buddha was dwelling in such and such a place
with such and such bodhisattvas; it simply says that the Buddha was dwelling in such and such a place with
such and such bhiksus: for example: "The Buddha was dwelling in VaranasT with five hundred bhiksus",
"The Buddha was dwelling in the land of Gaya with a thousand bhiksus", "The Buddha was dwelling in
SravastT with five hundred bhiksus". This is the way all their sutras begin; they never say that the Buddha
is accompanied by any number of bodhisattvas whatsoever.
Question. - There are two kinds of bodhisattvas: those who have gone forth from the world (pravrajita)
and those who stay in the world (grhastha). The grhastha bodhisattvas are usually cited among the bhiksus
and bhiksums. Why does the sutra cite them separately here?
Answer. - 1 . Although they are usually ranked in the four assemblies, it is fitting to cite them separately.
Why? Because if the bodhisattvas are necessarily included in the four assemblies, the four assemblies do
not necessarily include the bodhisattvas. Why is that? They include the sravakas, the pratyekabuddhas,
people who seek to be reborn among the gods, others who seek to enjoy their life: these four kinds of
people are not ranked among the bodhisattvas. Why? [85b] Because they have not produced the mind [of
bodhi] nor do they wish some day to be Buddha.
2. Furthermore, the bodhisattvas, having obtained faith in the doctrine of non-arising of dharmas
(anutpattikadharmaksdnti), have suppressed all these names and conventions (sarvandmasamketa) that
characterize samsara and have left the three worlds; [thus] they are not ranked in the number of beings
(sattva). If the sravakas who have become arhats and are nirvanized are not counted in the number of living
beings, what can be said about the bodhisattvas? Thus in the Po lo yen (pdrdyana) to the Question of Yeou
po che (UpasTvapariprccha), a stanza says: 422
421 For the monastic precepts, see Kern, Histoire, II, p. 121-125; Oldenberg, Bouddha, p. 415-419, and above all the
oni] in idy of] Ul hi ndi ; / / unipi Leipzig. 1926
nil nipal 6: Upasivamaii ipuccha, v. 1075-1076:
Upasiva: Attliangato so uda va so vti so net 'tthi .... tatlui hi re vklito csa (lluanino.
After cessation (nirodha), is it impossible to reappear?
He who has disappeared is not reborn?
Having entered into nirvana, does one remain there always?
May the great Sage tell me the truth!
The Buddha answered:
He who has disappeared cannot be defined;
He escapes from causes and conditions (hetupratyaya), from names and characteristics (ndmalaksana).
He has gone beyond the way of all speech (sarvavddapatha);
In one moment he disappears like an extinguished fire.
If the arhats have destroyed all names and conventions (samketa), all the more so are the bodhisattvas able
to destroy all dharmas. Do they not destroy them by knowing their true nature (bhutalaksana) and by
altaininy the dharmakdya'} This is why the Mahayana mentions the bodhisattvas separately from the four
assemblies.
Question. - At the beginning of the Mahayana surras, why are two assemblies mentioned, bodhisattvas and
sravakas, whereas at the beginning of the sutras of the sravakas, only the assembly of bhiksus is mentioned
and not that of the bodhisattvas?
Answer. - 1 . It is in order to distinguish the two Vehicles, the Vehicle of the Buddhas (buddhaydna) and
the Vehicle of the listeners (sravakayana). The Sravakayana is narrow {hind), the Buddhayana is broad
(vipula); the Sravakayana is that of personal interest ( sva.kd.rtha), action for oneself; the Buddhayana is that
of benefit for all.
2. Furthermore, the Sravakayana teaches in particular the emptiness of the individual (sattvasunyatd),
whereas the Buddhayana teaches both the emptiness of the individual and the emptiness of dharmas
{dharmasunyata).
These are the differences that distinguish the two Vehicles. The Mahayana sutras speak of the two
assemblies, sravaka and bodhisattva. Thus it is said in the Tsan mo ho yen kie (Mahay anastotragatha):
Bhagava: Atthangatassa ihi painanain attlii; .... sinuluita vadopatha pi sabbe ti.
"When the saint has disappeared, can one say that he is no longer, can one say that he is free of pain forever? Please
plain th torn «> because you know. - About the one who has disappeared, there is no means of knowing him;
there is nothing more of him by means of which one would speak about him; all the fads thai constituted him arc
abolished; abolished arc all the ways of speech."
The same idea is expressed by the Sarnyutta, IV. p. 376-377: "The saint cannot be described as form, feeling, perception,
lilion nil ii u In i i, all Ih Icmci hi i n supp J ( l. upro I (uc icduced to the
state of a palm ii lump i < '/;// l, reduced to nothing ( ita), i nd red in pablc o ii i i I i m
Uiyat hi). He is prol mud ( u nn isurablc ( i I, mil ith unable Ul i ill 1
great ocean. one cannot say: he is, he is not, he both is and is not, or he neither is or is not."
The practitioners of the Mahayana
Are able to bring joy to all;
They bring benefit by means of the true Dharma
And cause the supreme Path to be found.
The practitioners of the Mahayana
Have compassion for all.
They give their head and their eyes
And sacrifice them like a wisp of straw.
The practitioners of the Mahayana
Observe the pure precepts (sila).
Like the plow-ox that loves its tail
But has no cares about its own life.
The practitioners of the Mahayana
Have attained supreme patience (kscuiti).
To slash their body
To their eyes is like cutting grass.
The practitioners of the Mahayana
[85c] Are zealous and untiring.
Their effort (prayoga) is ceaseless
Like sailors on the high seas.
The practitioners of the Mahayana
Cultivate innumerable samadhis.
Abhijnas, the aryamarga and balas.
They have acquired the pure vasitas
The practitioners of the Mahayana
Discern the characteristics of dharmas;
They do not destroy true wisdom
When they are endowed with it.
Their knowledge is inconceivable,
The power of their compassion is immense.
Without entering into distinctions,
They consider all dharmas in the same way.
The carts of the ass, horse, camel and elephant
Although similar, are not comparable;
In the same way, the bodhisattva Vehicle differs from that of the sravaka:
The one is great, the other is small.
Great loving-kindness (maitri) is its axle-tree'
86a] Wisdom (prajna) is its two wheels,
Energy (virya) is its steed,
Discipline (sila) and the samadhis are its nails.
Patience (ksanti) and shame (lajjd) are its timbering,
The dharams are its reins.
The Vehicle of the Mahayana
Can cross over anything.
Question. - At the beginning of the sutras of the sravakas, only the assembly of the bhiksus is spoken of. In
the sutras of the Mahayana, why is not the assembly of bodhisattvas the only assembly spoken of?
Anawer. - It is because the Mahayana is broad (vipulya) and all the Vehicles enter into it, whereas the
Vehicle of the sravakas is narrow and does not contain the Mahayana. Thus the Ganges does not contain
the great ocean because it is narrow, whereas the great ocean can receive all the rivers because it is vast. It
is the same for the Mahayana. A stanza says:
The Mahayana is like the sea,
The HInayana is like the water contained in the hoofprint of an ox (gopada udakam).
The small cannot contain the great:
This comparison is applicable here. 3
DEFINITION OF BODHISATTVA424
Question. - What do the words bodhi and sattva mean?
423 The water contained in the hoofprint of an ox (gopadam udakam) is compared to the immense waters of the ocean
(inaliasainiulro 'pariinitajaladliarah) in the same \\a\ thai the smallest is compared with the greatest. CI'. Ahguttara, IV.
p. 102; Milinda, p. 287; Samdhinirmocana, p. 207-208, Divyavadana, p. 397.
424 For this entire section, see the excellent article Bosatsu in Hobogirin, p. 136-142.
Answer. - 1. Bodhi is the path of the Buddhas (buddhamdrga); sattva is either a being or a great mind. ^
The bodhisattva is the being who is going to obtain the mind, indestructible (aheya) and infrangible
(acyuta) like a diamond mountain (vajrapai vata), of the qualities (guna) of the Path of the Buddhas. Such
is the great mind. Some stanzas say:
All the Buddha-attributes,
Wisdom (prajha), discipline (sila) and meditation (samddhi)
That are profitable to all
Are called 'bodhi'.
The unshakeable (aksobhya) mind,
Able to patiently accomplish the dharmas of the Path,
Indestructible (aheya) and infrangible (acyuta).
This mind is called 'sattva'.
2. Furthermore, sat means to praise (stava) the holy Dharma, tva means the essential nature (bhavalaksana)
of the holy Dharma. The bodhisattva is so called because his mind is beneficial to himself and to others,
because he saves all beings, because he knows the true nature (bhutasvabhava) of all dharmas, because he
travels the Path of supreme perfect enlightenment (anuttarasamyaksambodhi) and because he is praised by
all the aryas. Why is that? Among all the attributes (dharma), that of the Buddha is foremost and because
the bodhisattva wishes to attain it, he is praised by the aryas.
3. Furthermore, the bodhisattva is so called because he seeks to gain the Path in order to liberate all beings
(sattva) from birth (jati), old age (jard) and death (marana).
4. Furthermore, three kinds of Paths (mavga) are called 'bodhi: i. the Path of the [86b] Buddhas, ii. the Path
of the sravakas, iii, the Path of the pratyekabuddhas. That of the pratyekabuddhas and of the sravakas,
while leading to a bodhi, are not, however, qualified as bodhi. But the bodhi contained in the qualities of
Buddha (buddhaguna) are qualified as Bodhi. This is what is called 'bodhisattva'.
Question. - For how many reasons is he called Bodhisattva?
Answer. - The Bodhisattva is so called for three reasons: he possesses the great vow (mahapranidhdna),
his mind (citta) is unshakeable (acala, aksobya) and his energy (virya) is irreversible (avaivartika).
Furthernore, some say that he is called Bodhisattva starting from the first production of the mind of bodhi
(prathamacittotpada), when he made the vow to become Buddha and to save all beings. A stanza says:
When, at the moment of the first cittotpada,
4 ^- ) The same interpretation of sattva as 'mind' in various Chinese commentaries cited by the Bukkyo daijiten, p. 1626,
and by Hobogirin, p. 139, which refers to T 1521, k. 2; T 1575, k. 1, T 1718, k. 2. - There is also a good definition of
bodhisattva-mahasattva in the Buddhabhuinisastra, T 1530, k. 2, p. 300a.
He made the vow to become Buddha,
He has surpassed all the universes
And is worthy to be venerated ipuja) by men.
He is called Bodhisattva during the interval [of time] starting from the first production of mind
(prathamacittotpada) up to the ninth uninterrupted path {anantarya) when he enters into the diamond
concentration (vajrasamadhi).®
REGRESSING OR NON-REGRESSING BODHISATTVA
There are two kinds of bodhisattvas, with regression (vaivartika) or without regression {avaivartikay^' as
is the case for the arhats who are susceptible of falling back (parihanadharmari) or not susceptible of
falling back (uparihclnaclharman)."
The non-regressing bodhisattvas are called the true bodhisattvas for they are it truly; the others, the
bodhisattvas susceptible of falling back, are called bodhisattva [by extension]. In the same way, those who
have found the fourfold Path {caturvidha margay™ are called the true assembly (samgha) for they are
really it; the others, those who have not found the Path, are called assembly [by extension].
Question. - How do we know whether a bodhisattva is with regression or without regression?
Answer. - In the Prajnaparamita, in the chapter of the A pi po tche (Avaivartikaparivarta), 4 ™ m e Buddha
himself defined the characteristics {laksana): regression has such and such characteristics, non-regression
has other characteristics.
42 ° The ninth u '1 1 lb mdonm til oi il i rii lth i iti gor> of afflictions of the bhavagra; as it breaks all the
anusayas. it receives the name 'concentration lil liamond' l ///).- Th |i u u in mi Hi i i iin d I
the bodhisattva in the tenth bhumi, at the end of the stage of meditation {bhavanavastha); he cuts the last obstacles
(tivtirtirui) on the path. Immediately following it (hence its nam< muiitun I tin bodhi ill i undergoes the revolution of
the suppoit (< rayap vi I, i ili niiliinm ina mcl m h .1 idhi mJ enters onto the Buddha level. on this subject
v\ liich demands lengthy development, I [Lamotte] u ill limit myself to pro\ iding a few references: Kosa, IV, p. 231; VI, p.
190, 228-229, 264, 300; VII, p. 62; VIII, p. 192, 195; E. Obermiller, Doctrine of P. P., p. 44; Uttaratantra, p. 223; Bodh.
bhumi. p. 403; Sutralamkara, XIV, v. 45; Madhyantavibhahga, p. 83, 157; Samgraha, p. 273; Siddhi, p. 3, 162, 563, 611,
653, 667, 685.
42 ' This subject will be taken up again later, k. 74, p. 579c.
428 See Kosa, VI, p. 253.
42 " The Path is of four types: preparatory path {prayoga), uninterrupted path {anantarya), path of deliverance (yimukti)
and path of excellence (visesa). See Kosa, VI, p. 277-278.
4 -'° This is one of the chapters of the Pancavimsati entitled Poi o ouan p'ii LnHiuan in transl lion, chap. 53
(T 220, k. 448, p. 260b-264a),^ weiyue tchep'in in Moksala's translation, chap. 56 (T 221, k. 12, p. 80a-87c), Pou t'ouei
p'in in KumarajTva's translation, chap. 55 (T 223, k. 16, p. 339-341b). Very close, chap. 17 of the Astasahasrika, entitled
t \ ii riginal n knt of which may be found in the edition of R. Mitra, p. 323-
340.
1 . If the bodhisattva practices or meditates on one single dharma, he is called a non-regressing bodhisattva.
What is this one single dharma?
It is the continual and resolute accumulation of good dharmas {kusaladharmasamuccaya). It is said that by
resolutely (ekacittena) accumulating good dharmas, the Buddhas have attained supreme perfect
enlightenment (anuitarasamyaksambodhi).
2. Furthermore, the bodhisattva who possesses one single dharma is without regression. What is this one
single dharma? It is right effort (yiryd). Thus the Buddha asked Ananda: "Ananda, are you speaking about
effort?" - "Yes, Bhagavat." "Ananda, are you praising effort?" - "Yes, Bhagavat." - "Ananda, one must
practice, cultivate and remember effort until one leads men to the attainment of supreme and perfect
enlightenment (cmiittciiwscimycikscimhodhi)."^*- And so forth.
"" 1 The Mpps will refer to the same text twice again:
At k. 15, p. 173c: When Ananda was preaching the seven minds of awakening (kie yi) to the bhiksus and had come to ths
mind of awakening called cfforl (virya), the Buddha said to Ananda: "Arc you speaking of the mind of awakening callcc
effort?" Ananda replied "Yes, I am speaking of the i lind 'I iwal nin i i lied effort." [The Buddha asked] the same
question three limes, [and Ananda made] the same response three times. Then the Buddha arose from his seat and said tc
Ananda: "there is nothing that people who love and practice effort cannot attain; without fail they will succeed ir
attaining Buddhahood."
At k. 26, p. 249c: one day the Buddha said to Ananda: "Proclaim the Dharma to the bhiksus; my back aches, I am
going to lie down for a while." Thei 111 I li i i it I >ld< d Ki u\ p i irm ni ' ' < hi) in four, spead it on the
round, and nil In loak (saiiiglniti) as pill o (hiinhoi he lay down, then Ai iiiil i pi ichcd tin am mm
of awakening (kio I. Whenh i nn toth I nin oi ffortl ir) I the Buddha woke up and said to Ananda: "Are
you praisiing effort?" Ananda relied: "I am praising it." And this was repeated three times. Then the Buddha said:
"Good! good! Those who cultivate effort well will succeed in obtaining anuitarasamyaksambodhi anil, all the more so,
all the other bodhis." [What the Mpps here calls the seven Minds or the seven meanings of awakening (in Sanskrit
sambodhyanga) are the seven saddahammas of Pali scholasticism. They are the possessions of the man of faith
(saddho) who is reserved (hirinia), quiet (ottappi), learned (hahussuto), energetic (araddhaviriyo), vigilant and mindful
(npatthtasati) and endi cd nli isclom I iiavd) Di h 111 im utta II i Vhguttara, IV, p.
109 sq.; Majjhima, I, p. 356.]
I!i utra >f\ a ii Hi vlpi i ii i u Hi / i i lajjhima I p " hich, error excepted, has no
correspondant in the Chinese Agama. But the version used by the Mpps differs somewhat from the Pali text, of which
here are the main lines: The Buddha was dwilhn imon ; tin Sakya it I ipil i i In in tin I ' igrodharama. Having
preached to the Sakyas until late in the night, he said to Ananda: Explain, O Ananda, the path of practice (sekha
pdtipada),m} ba I Ii I iU hi to lie down (pitthiin tin ivati I i i n mnda obeyed and
the Bhagavat, having folded his cloak in foui I i mi) lay down on his right side in the
lion's pose (dakkhinena passena sihaseyyam kappesi), with one foot on top of the other (pdde pddam aceddhdya),
attentive, lucid with his mind fixed on the moment ol i iki nin (sati i , am "v, , i n manasikaritvd).
Ananda then explained to Vlahanaman, the Sakyan, how the disciple of the Buddha should be endowed with discipline
(silasampanna), guarding his senses (indriyesu guttadrdra), measured in his Ukh! (hliojaiic mattanmi), devoted to
wakefulness (jagt , • i annuyt I endowed with the seven good dharmas (sattahi saddhammehi samanndgatd),
familial ith th four dh inas (cat aiu jliain in nil un , , l Ii n Ht crm n i finished (he Buddha arose
3. Furthermore, the bodhisattva who possesses two dharmas is without regression. What are these two
dharmas? Knowing that all dharmas are empty (sunyd) and never abandoning beings. The person who does
that is a non-regressing bodhisattva.
[86c] 4. Finally, the bodhisattva who possesses three dharmas is without regression: 1) Resolutely
(ekacittena) he has made the vow (pranidhdna) to become Buddha, and this resolution is unshakeable
(acald) and infrangible (aheyd) like diamond (yajrd). 2) His compassion (karunacitta) for all beings
penetrates his bones (asthi) and marrow (majjd). 3) He has attained the samadhi of wisdom
(prajndsamddhi) and sees all the Buddhas of the present (pratyutpanna). Thus he is called non-regressing
bodhisattva.
THE BODHISATTVA IN THE ABHIDHARMA SYSTEM432
1. Definition
In the Abhidharma, the disciples of Kia tchanyen ni tseu (Katyayarifputra) say: Who is called bodhisattva?
He who has awakened himself and then awakens others is called bodhisattva; he who necessarily will
become Buddha is called bodhisattva .433 Bodhi is the wisdom (prajha) of the saint who has destroyed the
impurities (ksindsrava). The person born from this wisdom, protected by the sages and served by the sages,
is called bodhisattva.
and congratulated him: Good, good! Ananda, you have explained the path of practice well to the Sakyas of
ICapilavastu.
'Thus, in the Pali Sckhasutta, the Buddha congratulates Ananda when his sermon is finished. on the other hand, in (he
version followed here by the Mpps, he interrupts Ananda at the moment when the latter was speaking of exertion, i.e.,
when he arrived at the fifth of the seven good dharmas (sattasaddhamma) and when he says (according to the Pali text
(Vlajjhima, 1, p. 356) that the good disciple "rests energetic in order to destroy the bad dharmas and acquire the good
ones, remains stable, firm in his demeanor, not rejecting the yoke of the good dharmas" (draddhaviriyo viharati
akusalaiuaii dlianimanam pahanaya kusalaiutiu dlianimanam upasapadaya, tliamava (lalliaparakkamo anikkliittadliiiro
at i !' vpn in linn II in iln i nanda i dint >u iIh.i ithci lhan repeating a phrase that
appears in all the surras (e.g., Dlgha, III, p. 237, 268, 285; Majjhima, II, p. 95, 128; Samyutta, V, p. 197 sq.; Ahguttara, I,
p. 1 17, 224-246; II, p. 250 sq.; Ill, p. 2, 1 1, 65, 152 sq.; IV, p. 3, 1 10, 153 sq., 234, 352-353, 357; V, p. 15, 24, 27-28, 90-
91; Udana, p. 36). The corresponding Sanskrit formula which differs by only one word, is known to the Sutralamkara. cd.
I i i 1 i / i I i i i i i
432 The Mpps refers to the Abhidharma doctrines here only to counter them in the following section. It draws all its
information from the Vibasa, T 1545, k. 176 and 177, p. 883-892. The present account will be taken up again later by
Vasubandhu in the Kosa, IV, p. 220-223 and by Samghabhadra in the Chouen tcheng li louen, T 1562, k. 44, p. 590-591.
433 Cf. Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 176, p. 887c (Hobogirin, p. 137): The being who is capable of actions of retribution
producing the wonderful marks is called bodhisattva. lust the person w ho nlightcnmcnt l l and destiny I |l in
are definitively assured (niyatd) is called a true bodhisattva. Bodhi alone is assured starting from the production of the
mind of enlightenment (cittotpadd), but it becomes the destiny only with the faculty of accomplishing 'the actions
productive of the wondrous marks.
They also say that he is called bodhisattva as soon as he has produced the non-regressing mind
(avaivartikacitta).
They also say that he must have eliminated five dharmas and gained five dharmas in order to be called
bodhisattva. What are these five dharmas?
1) He is freed from the three unfortunate destinies (durgati) arid is always reborn among gods (deva) and
men (manusya). 2) He escapes from poverty (daridya), from commoners (nicakula) and always belongs to
a noble family (uccakula). 3) He is never a female ( , bhava)\ lv i imak (pumbhava). 4) He is free
of physical defects and weaknesses (vaikalya); his organs are complete (avikalendriya). 5) He never has
lapses of memory (sampramosa) but remembers his past existences (Jatismara).^^ - Possessing the
wisdom (prajna) of his past lives (purvanivasa), staying away from evil people, always searching for the
path of Dharma (mdrgadharma), drawing disciples to himself, he is called bodhisattva.
2. Actions producing the thirty-two marks
They also say that he is called bodhisattva starting from the moment when he has accomplished the actions
producing the thirty-two marks (dvatrimsallaksanakarmari).-'-'
Question. - When does he accomplish the actions producing the thirty-two marks?
Answer. - After the three incalculable periods (asamkhyeyakalpa).^®
Question. - How long is an asamkhyeya?
Answer. - An asamkhyeya is a number so great that divine or human calculators cannot comprehend it 437
Thus:
434 These five points are also found in the Vibhasa, k. 176, p. 887a. - They also occur in a karika of the Rosa, IV, p. 222:
ca i ' 'i nd repeated in Samghabhadra, T I ' -i J [
4 -" Cf. Kosa, IV„ p. 220: Bodhisuttvo kuto? - Yuvut luksunukarmakrdyathah.
4: >" The career of the bodhisattva in all these sources is three as upkh > \ tkalpas plus one hundred supplementary kalpas.
- The Pali sources generally count four asamkhycyas and a hundred thousand kalpas: Cariyapitaka, I, v. 1; Jataka, I, p. 2;
Visuddhimagga, I, p. 302. - The Mahay-ana hesitates between three, seven and thirty-three asamkhycyas, which it
connects with the progress of the bodhisattva before and during his stay in the bhumis: Vladh. villi, p. 43 1 : Samgraha, p
209-211; Siddhi, p. 731-733; Aloka, p. 988.
4 -'' For the method or methods of calculating the asamkhyeya, sec the plentiful but confused notes of de La Vallee
Poussin in Kosa, III, p. 188; IV, p. 224. Four \\a\ s of calculating arc explained in the .Ylahavyutpatti: the first two (chap.
246 and 247) are taken from the Buddhavatamsaka, T 278. k. 29, p. 586; T 279, k. 45, p. 237; and in Sanskrit in the
edition of the Gandavyuha of D. T. Suzuki, Kyoto, 1934, I, p. 133, - The third computation (.Ylahavyut., chap. 248) is
taken from Lalitavistara fed, Lcfmann, p. 147-148). - The fourth (chap. 149) is taken from the Kosa, III, p. 190; it also
occurs in Bu ston, I, p. 120-121.
The numbers used in southern Buddhism have been studied by W. Kiefel, Kosmographie des Inder, p. 336.
Below at k. 5, p. 94b-c, the Mpps will give an extract from the Acintyasutra i = Gandavyuha) containing a long list of
numbers increasing each time by one zero starting from ten.
[87a] 1 + 1
2x2
1,000 x 10,000 = 10,000,000 or one koti
10 million kotis = one nayitta
10 million nayutas = one bimbara
10 million bimbaras = one gata
Beyond the gata is the asamkhyeya.
This is how the asamkhyeya is calculated. When one has passed over the first asamkhyeya, one passes
through the second; when one has passed through the second, one passes through the third. According to
the rules of arithmetic (ganana), one counts from one to a hundred and when the hundred is finished, one
returns to one. In the same way, after one asamkhyeya, the bodhisattva returns to one.
During the first asamkhyeya, the bodhisattva does not know if he will become a Buddha or not. - During
the second asamkhyeya, he knows that he will be Buddha but does not dare to proclaim: "I shall be
Buddha." - During the third asamkhyeya, he knows confidently that he will be Buddha and he dares to
proclaim fearlessly (bhaya): "Later I shall be Buddha. '"" °
For Buddha Sakyamuni, the first asamkhyeya goes from the ancient Buddha Sakyamuni to the Buddha La
na che k'i (Ratnasikhin).""" From that time on, the Bodhisattva was free of all female births. - The second
asamkhyeya goes from the Buddha Ratnasikhin to the Buddha Jan tang (DTpamkara). That was when the
Bodhisattva offered seven blue lotus blossoms (nilotpala) to the Buddha DTpamkara, laid out his garment
of antelope skin (ajinavdsa) and spread out his hair (kesa) to cover the mud (kardama). on that occasion,
the Buddha DTpamkara made the prediction: "Later you will be Buddha under the name Sakyamuni. '"+40 .
438 Passage taken from the Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 176, p. 886c.
""" During the first asamkhyeya. Sakyamuni venerated 75,000 Buddhas; during the second, 76,000. during the third,
77,000. The Buddhas venerated at the end of these three asamkyeyas were, respectively, Ratnasikhin, DTpamkara and
Vipasyin. Cf. Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 178, p. 892c; Kosa, IV, p. 227; Samghabhadra, T 1562, k. 44, p. 391b.
440 This legend is one of the oldest in Buddhism: A young stiu I nt I i I or novice (m I named Sumedha,
vl ha oi umati, according to irion mrci bought from a maiden Five of tin i n blue lotus Row ci hich she had
He threw them as an offering to the Buddha DTpamkara who was passing by, and the lotuses remained suspended in the
air around the Buddha's head. Converted by this miracle, the young man then laid out on the muddy ground the antelope
skin which served as his garment and spread out his long hair as a mat; prostrating thus, he pronounced the solemn vow
The third asamkhyeya goes from the Buddha Dipamkara to the Buddha P'i p'o che (Vipasyin). - After these
three asamkhyeyakalpas, the Bodhisattva accomplishes the actions producing the thirty-two marks. ^1
Question. - In what place are the actions producing the thirty-two marks accomplished?
Answer. - In the realm of desire {kdmadhdtu) and not in the form realm (rupadhatu) or in the formless
realm (drupyadhdtu). Of the five destinies (gati) of the desire realm, they are accomplished in the human
destiny (manusyagati). Of the four continents (caturdvipaka), they are accomplished in JambudvTpa. The
Bodhisattva accomplished them as a male (pumdn) and not as a female. He accomplished them in the
epoch in which the Buddhas appear, not in an epoch when there are no Buddhas. He accomplished them
with the view of Buddhahood and not with any other goal. 2
Question. - Are the actions producing the thirty-two marks bodily actions (kdyakarman), vocal actions
( vukktirman) or mental actions (manaskarman)!
(hal lie would also become Buddha. Then Dipamkara predicted that he would one day become Buddha under the name
Sakyamuni.
This legend is attested by a huge number of sources. Here are some of the main ones:
Pali: Nidanakatha, p. 2-14 (tr. Rh. D., Buddhist Birth Stories, p. 3-31); Dhammapadattha, I, p. 83-84 (tr. Burlingame,
Legends, I, p. 193-194); Buddhavamsa, p. 6-18 (tr. Law, p. 8-22); Suttanipata comm., I, p. 49.
Sanskrit: .Ylahavastu, i. p. 232 243. Divyavadana, p. 246-252 (tr. H. Zimmcr. Karman, cin huddlustischcr Tcgcndkranz,
Miinchen, 1925, p.42-60).
Tibetan: Mar me mdszad kyis luh bstan pa = Dipamkaravyakarana, Mdo XV, no. 8 Cf. Csoma-Feer, p. 258: OKC,
no.855, p. 330. Translated in Feer, Extraits, p. 305-321.
mi I] I nd is found ill th u I sen Inn T 125, k. 11, p. 597a-599c. It is also found in most of the
Chinese biographies of Sakyamuni, e.g., Lieou tou tsi king, T 152 (no. 86), k. 8, p. 47c-48b (tr. Chavannes, Contes, I, p.
316-321). - A very detailed story in the Dharmagupta Vinaya, Sscu fen liu, T 1428, k. 31, p. 785a (summarized in
Cha\ amies, Contes, IV, p. 134).
Iconography: Fouchei 4it Gill( ' I 12 il i huu It, Gandliara Lcipzi
19 ' havanncs, ;1 > tin ' i I k Lxkc-Dcmicvillc, Twin P
ofZayton, Harvard, 1935, pi. 32, no. 2.
The offering of the future Sakyamuni to the Buddha Dipamkara took place in Nagarahara, a city of the Lampaka,
corresponding to the present Jclal-Abad. The place was visited by Fa hien (tr. Legge, p. 38) and by Hiuan tsang, T 2087,
k. 2, p. 878c (tr. Beal, I, p. 92; Watters, I, p. 183).
in ih il. i i mii lii wi among the various versions of the legend. We will note only that the Pali sources
i i ii in mi \ ill lln in i I u li , Hi I li i , i i hill In i i !i hai in li ill I Jin II u i ii (I
out on the mud. on the other hand, She two episodes are told in the Divyavadana which, having its exact parallel in the
Chinese Ekottaragama, seems to be one of the oldest sources.
441 The Bodhisattva accomplishes these actions in the course of the hundred cosmic ages that follow the three
i mi 1 'i I I mi 'habhdra, T 1562, k. 44, p. 590c. But these hundred kalpas arc often neglected and
then it is said that the state of Buddhahood is attained at the end of three asamkhyeyas.
442 Same details in the Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 177, p. 887c; Kosa, IV, p.223-224; Samghabhadra, T 1562, k. 44, p. 590c.
Answer. - They are mental actions and not bodily or vocal actions. Why? Because mental action alone is
profitable. 443
Question. - Mental action (manaskarman) concerns the six consciousnesses (yijndna). Are the actions
producing the thirty-two marks accomplished by the mental consciousness (manovijnana) or by the other
five consciousnesses?
Answer. - They are accomplished by the mental consciousness and not by the other five consciousnesses.
Why? Because the five consciousnesses are incapable of discernment (vikalpa). This is why they are
accomplished by the mental consciousness. 444
Question. - Which mark is set in place first?
[87b] Answer. - According to some, it is the mark that consists of having the feet well set
(supratisthitapada), because first it is necessary to be well established in order that the other marks be
fixed. According to others, the mark fixed first is that which consists of having deeply set black eyes
{abhimlanetra), for it is with an eye of this kind that the one with great loving-kindness (mahdmaitra)
looks upon beings. These two opinions, whatever may be said about them, are incorrect: When the causes
and conditions (hetupratyaya) of the marks are gathered, there is a first realization [for all the marks
together]; so how could the feet well planted be the first?
Question. - Are the actions accomplished by one volition (cetana) or by several volitions?
Answer. - Thirty-two different volitions accomplish the thirty -two marks by reason of one volition for each
mark. But each mark taken separately, is adorned (alamkrta) with a hundred merits (punya) .$
Question. - What is the extent of each of these merits? 44 "
443 Cf. Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 177, p. 887b: What is the nature (svabhdva) of the actions producing the marks? Are they
actions of body, speech or mind? - They have the nature of these three actions, but mental action is the main one
(adhipati). Some say thai they are only mental actions and not bodily or vocal. Why? Because mental action is sharp
{tiksna), whereas bodily and vocal actions arc dull (mrdii). Do Ihc actions that produce the marks belong to the sphere of
the manas or to the five consciou ni (i nana)! - They belong to the sphere of the manas and not to the five
consciousnesses. Why? Because mental action is endowed with concept (vikalpa) and functions after examination
(nirupana); on the contrary, the five consciousnesses are without concept and arise as a consequence of the manas
clement (iiiano(lhatu).
444 Qf me s j x consciousnesses, the mental consciousness alone is endowed with the two special vikalpas called
examination (nirupana) and memory (anusmarana); the other five consciousnesses (the visual, auditory, olfactory,
gustatory and tactile consciousnesses) hick them. In oilier words, the visual consciousness knows blue, but it does not
know "It is blue". only the mental consciousness is capable of this operation. Cf. Kosa, i, p. 60: Samgraha, p. 19.
445 The Kosavyakhya (cited in Kosa, IV, p. 226) and at i I al h tdra, T 1562, k. 44, p. 590c) count a hundred volitions
and consequently a hundred merits for each mark to be realized.
44" There are several opinions on the extent or measure of each merit of the Bodhisattva: here the Mpps will mention
seven: the Vibhasa (T 1545, k. 177, p.889c sq.) mentions eleven; the Kosa (IV, p. 227) mentions only three;
Samghabhadra (T 1562, k. 44, p. 591a) limits it to five.
Answer. - According to some, each merit is equivalent to that which assures the cakravartin king power
over the four continents {caturdvipaka). A hundred merits of this kind would realize one single mark.
According to others, each merit is equivalent to that which gives Che t'i houan yin (Sakradevendra)
mastery {vasita) over two classes of gods. 4 '
According to others, each merit is equivalent to that which gives the king of the Paranirmitavasavartin gods
the power over the world of desire {kamadhatu).°
According to others, each merit is equivalent to the merit that has as its fruit the enjoyment of all beings
with the exception of the bodhisattva close to bodhi (samnikrstabodhisuttva).
According to others, each merit is equivalent to the collective merit of all the beings of earth and heaven at
the end of a kalpa, merit which has as its retribution the formation of a trichiliomegachiliocosm
{trisdhasramahdsahasralokadhatu).
According to others, this merit is immeasurable {aprameya), incomparable {anupama) and unknowable
{ajheya). It is equivalent to that which one person would gain by caring for and healing all the beings of a
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu in the case where these would all be blind (andhd) and without eyes; or
where they had all been poisoned and he took care of them and cured them; or where they were about to
die and he was able to save them and deliver them; or where they had all lost their discipline (sila) and he
was able to teach them and bring them back to pure discipline (yisuddhisila) and right view. All of that
would be equivalent to only one single merit [producing the marks].
According to yet others, this merit is immeasurable {aprameya) and incomparable {anupama). When the
Bodhisattva has entered the third asamkhyeya, his mind {citta) and his volition {cetana) have a great
activity; he accomplishes the actions producing the thirty-two marks. This is why his merits are immense
and only the Buddha can know them.
Question. - During how long a time does the Bodhisattva accomplish the [actions producing] the thirty-two
marks?
Answer. - During a hundred kalpas if he goes slowly, during ninety-one kalpas if he goes quickly. The
Bodhisattva Sakyamuni realized the thirty-two marks in ninety-one kalpas. 9
44 ' Sakra commands two lower classes of gods of kamadhatu: the Cahirmaharajikas arid the Trayastrimsas (cf. Beal,
Catena, p. 93).
44 ° The Paranirmitavasavartins arc the higher gods of kamadhadtu: their leader, called Vasavartin in DIgha, I, p. 210;
Mahavastu, I, p. 263; II, p. 360, is none other than Mara (sec below, k. 10, p. 134c: Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 123: Hubcr.
Sutralamkara, p. 110).
44 " In these one hundred kalpas during which normally the Bodhisattva accomplished the actions producing the marks,
Sakyamuni, thanks to his effort (virya), skipped over nine. Therefore his effort lasted only 91 kalpas instead of 100. Cf.
lahavastti. 111, p. 249: vn I i i I i i I 1545, k. 177,
p. 890b; Kosa. IV, p. 225; Samghabhadra, T 1562, k. 44, p. 591a; Fu ti king louen, T 1539, k. 7, p. 327a; Kouan fo san
mei hai king, T 643, k. 7, p. 679b (tr. Przyluski, Le Nord-Puest de I'lnde, JA, 1914, p. 566). Also, as he himself said
several nm 1 1 « n ii n Inn not ivei d uil 'I 'Ml ilp un nil i p l i i I 11, p. 2: .Ylajjhima, I, p. 483;
Thus it is said in a sutra. ^
once, in times gone by, there was a Buddha named Fou cha (Pusya) 4 5 * ; at the same time there were two
Bodhisattvas; the first named Sakyamuni and the second Maitreya. The Buddha Pusya wanted to see if the
mind (citta) of the Bodhisattva [87c] Sakyamuni was pure or not. He examined it and saw that his mind
was not pure but that the minds of his disciples were pure. As for the Bodhisattva Maitreya, his mind was
pure but that the minds of his disciples were not pure. Then the Buddha Pusya said to himself: "It is easy to
change quickly the mind of a single man, but it is difficult to change quickly the mind of a crowd." Having
had this thought, wanting the Bodhisattva Sakyamuni to become Buddha quickly, the Buddha Pusya
climbed the Himavat mountain (himavantam parvatam abhiruhya), found a rock cave filled with jewels
(ratnaguham pravisyay^ and there entered into the concentration of fire (tejodluitum samapannah)."
At the same time, the Bodhisattva Sakyamuni, who then was a heretical sage (tirthikarsi), climbed the
mountain gathering herbs. He saw the Buddha Pusya seated in the jewel-cave in the concentration of fire,
emitting a great brilliance. At this sight, he experienced great joy (dnanda); he had faith and paid homage.
DTvyavadana, p. 282. For more details, see L. de La Vallee Poussin, Les m uf Ktilpti qu'a franclu tkyai ,,, i /;< in
devancer Maitreya, TP, 1928, no. 1, p. 17-21.
450 This story is told in the Avadanasataka, no. 97, II, p. 175-177 (tr. Feer, p. 412-414; Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190, k.4,
p. 670a (tr. Beal, Romantic Legend, p. 14); Siuan tsi po yuan king, T 299 (no, 97), k. 10, p. 253c-254a; P'i p'o cha, T
1545, k. 177, p. 890b; Kosa, IV, p. 229 and Kosavyakhya, p. 432; Chouen tcheng li louen of Samghabhadra, T 1562, k.
44, p. 591c; Fo ti king louen, T 1530, k. 7, p. 327a. Here are a few extracts from the Avadanasataka, II, p. 175 sq.:
/ i ilho loka udapddi... So parena .... ekd\a \ t, >
nil divi hliuvi vti iiasiniini like na vaisravauaUiye....
purusavrsabha tvattulyo 'nyo main nalj kutat.
Atha Pusya .scum kamhudd adhu satpurusa
aiieiia halaviryena saannena dvijttama -
nava ktilptilj paravrttah sanistutyada tatliatagatam.
4 -*l The Buddha in question sometimes appears under the name of Pusya f Mahavastu, III, p. 240; Avadanasataka, T 190;
T 200: Tibetan version of the Kosa hen . \ translati Pusya) mictinn under the mum if Tisya (T 1530; T
1562: Chinese translations of the Kosa by Paramartha and Hiuan tsang). Tisya is not, however, synonymous with Pusya.
In the Mahavastu (III, p. 240-243), the Buddha Tisya appears 95 kalpas before Sakyamuni and makes the prediction to
I'usya: the latter appears 92 kalpas before Sakyamuni and gives the prophecy to Vipasyin. These facts are more or less
confirmed by T 190 (Beal ' ' p 14) where Tisya and Pusya precede Sakyamuni by 95 and 94 kalpas
respectively. Tisya (variant Pusya) is also the name of a lunar mansion (Cancri).
4 -* 2 In most sources, the miracle took place in a jewel cave (ratnaguhd); the Vibhasa specifies a ca\ e of vaidurya. T 200
locates the scene under a tree.
4 -" T 1530 and T 1562 confirm this type of concentration adopted by Pusya Tin icentration on
the fire element, also called jvotisprtihlitistinitid/ii. concentration on the brilliance of fire, consists of considering the
clement lire and, by (he power of this examination, making one's bod) incandescent and emitting flames and smoke. It is
often followed by nirvana. Cf. Mahavastu, I, p. 556; Divyavadana, p. 186; Udana, 9, p. 93; Przyluski, Asoka, p. 26;
Concile, p. 10, 31, 66, 1 16 (the nirvana of Gavampati).
Standing erect on one leg, his palms joined towards the Buddha, he considered him attentively. Without
blinking his eyes, for seven days and seven nights he praised the Buddha with one single stanza:
Either in heaven or on earth, there is no equal to the Buddha.
In the universes of the ten directions, there is no-one comparable to him.
If one considers all the beings in the universe,
No-one is like the Buddha.
For seven days and seven nights, he contemplated the Buddha thus without blinking his eyes. This is how
lie freed (pixityuclcluvartate) nine kalpas and reached supreme perfect enlightenment
(anuttarasamyci!' iambodhi I in ninety-one kalpas. '4
Question. - The Bodhisattva Sakyamuni, intelligent (medhavin) and well-learned, was capable of
composing all sorts of marvelous stanzas. Why then does he praise the Buddha with one single stanza for
seven days and seven nights?
Answer. - The Bodhisattva Sakyamuni valued his mental intentions and valued the fact of not chattering. If
he had praised the Buddha with still more stanzas, his mind would now and then have been distracted
(viksiptacitta). This is why he praised the Buddha with the same stanza for seven days and seven nights,
Question. - Why was the Bodhisattva Sakyamuni's mind impure whereas that of his disciples was pure?
Why was the mind of the Bodhisattva Maitreya impure whereas that of his disciples was pure?
Answer. - The Bodhisattva Sakyamuni was totally preoccupied with the good of beings (sattvahita) and
but little with himself, whereas the Bodhisattva Maitreya preoccupied himself much with his own person
and little with other beings.
454 xh e various versions of this legend agree in essence and often in detail. They all intend to explain how the
Bodhisattva Sakyamuni. by praising the Buddha Pusya with a stanza repealed for seven days and seven nights, succeeded
in outstripping his colleague, the Bodhisattva Maitreya: the merit that he acquired by praising the Buddha freed him of
nine cosmic periods and he reached Buddhahood in ninety -one periods instead of one hundred.
one source, however, tells the facts in another way and, as a consequence, has a different import: this is the Siuan tsi no
yuan king (I 2(H). k. UK p. 253c-254a. the Chinese counterpart of the Sanskrit Avadanasataka). there is no question of
any kind of emulation between Sakyamuni and Maitreya. Both address their praise lo the Buddha together. Here is the
translation of this passage:
once, innumerable generations ago, in the land of Po lo nai (VaranasI), a Buddha appeared in the world: he was called
Pusya. He was seated under a tree crosslegged. 1 (Sakyamuni) and Maitreya were two bodhisattvas. We went to this
Buddha, made all kinds of offciin • i," n ipuj i) n>!, i Hiding on one leg for seven days, we praised him v\ ith this stanza:
"Either in heaven or on earth, nobody is like the Buddha. In the universes of the ten directions, nobody is comparable to
him. If one considers everything in the universe., nothing is like She Buddha."
The Mpps is referring probably to this latter source: attaching it below (p. 92c) to refute the Abhidharma doctrines
explained here, it will make the following comment: "You believe that only the Buddha Sakyamuni saw the Buddha
I'u i ''i !>i |i I cave and praised him nli >n ingli tanza during si nili in J n n 'hi 11 idanasataka i
the only one not to speak of it. If you do not know it, that is not a good enough reason."
During the ninety-one kalpas from the Buddha P'i p'o che (Vipasyin) to the Buddha Kia cho (Kasyapa), the
Bodhisattva [Sakyamuni] accomplished the actions producing the thirty-two marks and, when he had
accumulated (upacita) them, his six virtues (paramita) were perfected (paripurna).
3. The six virtues
What are the six virtues (paramita)'] The virtues of generosity (dana), discipline (sila), patience (ksanti),
exertion (vrrya), meditation (dhydna) and wisdom (prajha).
Question. - How does the Bodhisattva fulfill (paripiparti) the virtue of generosity?
Answer. - He gives everything unrestrictedly, and when he has given even his body, his heart feels no
regret, for example, king Che p'i (Sibi) who gave his body to the pigeon (kapota).^^
4 - > -' The 'gift of the flesh' for the ransoming of a pigeon [along with the 'gift of the eyes' and the 'gift of the flesh to
receive a teaching'] is one of the deeds of the famous king Sibi.
Sanskrit sources: It has been wrong!) claimed that we have no Indian Buddhist version of this ransoming of the pigeon.
The Kalpanamanditika, p. 181, contains fragments, unfortunately very mutilated, of this episode. - The Avadanakalpalata,
II, v. 109 (vol. I, p. 49) alludes to the gift of the eyes, but also to the ransom of the pigeon: ■iivijtnuiitini eandhaya
dattam... kapotah syenakad. Its chap. LV (vol II, p. 119-135) tel 1 ho kin ■> n niiilnlii ibi un im ') I th prii ii
his flesh bought a pigeon claimed by Indra who was disguised as a hunter. - Finalh lie ' ,nl vatara, p 1, i >'ii i"i .
i lilhful iimm i .1 (In episode in il n ilm rial form: Indrentij vadhi < I < < Ij. "liven
Indra, who has acquired sovereignty over all the gods, had to lake the form of a vulture because of his evil habit of eating
me i ii, ,u | i i i 'i Pursued I iiii ultu i ' inn i ho had aimed the form of a pigeon, got up onto the
scales. In order [to save him], king Sibi. who had compassion for the innocent, had to suffer great sorrow."
[Note: Chavannes (Contes, IV, p. 85), in error, attaches the Jataka no. 2 and the Pali Jataka no. 499 to 'the gift of the
flesh'. These texts deal only with 'the gift of the eyes.'
Chinese sources: Lieou tou king, T 152 (no. 2), k. 1, p. lb (tr. Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 7-11); P'ou sa pen hing king. T
155, k. 3, p. 119a24-25; Pen cheng man louen, T 160 (no. 2), k. 1, p. 333b-334a; Ta tchouang yen louen king, T 201 (no.
64), k. 12, p. 321-323 (tr. Huber, Sutralamkara, p. 330-341); Hien yu king, T 202, K. 1, P. 351c (cf. Schmidt, Der Weise
una dei Thar, p. 16-20): Tchong king. T 208 (no. 2), k. 1, p. 531c (tr. Chavannes, Contes, 11, p. 70-72): King liu yi siang.
T 2121, k. 25, p. 137c-138a.
Brahmanical sources: S. Levi, in JA, 2908, p. 246 refers to the Mahabharata, III, 139-131; III, 195; XIII, 32 (where the
i i i i Vrsadarbha); ICathasaritsa ira, 1, 7: Brhatl nli un ui| ,i I v. 81
' in nil I lun | udh v In ri ih n urn o iln hi i i ' !|i t udh i (el V\ inn mil Literatui II p l
The stupa of 'the gift of the flesh', situated near the village of Girarai on the boundary between the district of Peshav, al-
and Bouner, was visited by Fa hien T 2085, k. 5, p. 1021cl5 (tr. Chavannes, BEFEO, III, p. 427) and by Hiuan tsang, T
2087, k. 3, p. 883al4-18 (tr. Beal, I, p. 125; Watters, I, p. 234).
Iconi uili ( i "ii II i ii i 1 1 D. Barnctl I /; oflm L mdoi 191 ,1 s II vlathura (Vo i ' ' pi c)
AmaravatT (A. Foucher, Les sculptures d'Amariivati, RAA, V, 1928, p. 15, pi VIII, fig I ): Nagarjunikonda (.1. Ph. Vogcl,
Excavations at Nagarjunikonda, An. BibL, V, 1930 and pi. lib); Central Asia (Griinwedel, Buddh. Kuitstatten, fig, 130
and 251); Barabudur (foucher. Beginnings ofh. . Irt, pi. XXXVI, 2).
[88a] In one of his previous lives, the Buddha Sakyamuni was a king named Sibi; this king was reverent
(namas), had received refuge (sarand) and was very energetic (yiryavai) and full of loving-kindness
(maitri) and compassion (karuna); he considered all beings with the love of a mother for her child.
At that time there was no Buddha. The life of Che t'i houan yin (Sakradevendra) was exhausted and about
to end. Sakra said to himself: "Where is there an omniscient Buddha? I have some problems in various
subjects and I have not been able to cut through my doubts (samsaya)." He knew there was no Buddha and,
returning to the heavens, he sat down sadly. A skillful magician (daksa nirmdtry^, the god P'i cheou Me
mo (Visvakarman) asked him: "Devendra, why are you so sad?" Sakra answered: "I was looking for
someone who is omniscient and I have been unable to find him. That is why I am sad." Visvakarman said
to him: "There is a great bodhisattva endowed with generosity (dana), discipline (ilia) meditation (dhyand)
and wisdom (prajna). Before long, he will be Buddha." Sakra replied with this stanza:
Bodhisattvas who produce the Great Mind,
Eggs offish and flowers of the mango tree:
These three things are rather common,
But it is rare that they bear fruit.
Visvakarman replied: "This king Sibi of the Yeou che na clan is disciplined, very kind, very
compassionate, meditative and wise; before long he will be Buddha." Sakradevendra then said to
Visvakarman: "Let us go to examine him to see if he possesses the marks (laksana) of a bodhisattva. You
will change yourself into a pigeon (kapota) and I will be a falcon (syena). You will pretend to be afraid and
will take refuge in the king's armpit; I will chase you." Visvakarman answered: "Why torment the great
Bodhisattva in this way?" Sakradevendra replied with this stanza:
I no longer have any bad intentions.
In the same way that real gold must be tested,
It is necessary to test this bodhisattva in this way
And find out if his resolve is strong.
When Sakra had spoken this stanza, Visvakarman changed himself into a pigeon with red eyes and red
feet, while Sakradevendra changed himself into a falcon. The falcon pursued the pigeon swiftly; the latter
flew directly to take refuge in the king's armpit: trembling with fear, with troubled eyes, it uttered moans.
Then a numerous crowd
Declared at this sight:
'This king is very kind
All beings trust him.
" Monicr-Williams: /
This pigeon, this little bird,
Has taken refuge in him as in its nest.
That is the mark of a bodhisattva.
He will be Buddha before long. '
Then the falcon, perched on a nearby tree, said to king Sibi: "Give me my pigeon." [88b] The king
answered: "It is I who took it first, it is not yours. Since I have produced the Great Mind, I welcome all
beings (sattva) and I wish to save all beings." The falcon said: "O king, you want to save all beings; am I
not part of them? Why should I be the only one not to enjoy your compassion? Would you deprive me of
my daily food?" The king replied: "What do you eat?
I have made the vow to protect every being that takes refuge in me. What food do you need? I will give it
to you." The falcon answered: "I need fresh meat." The king began to think: "That is difficult to find
without killing animals. Must I then kill something to give it to him?" Reflecting thus, his decision
remained firm and he spoke this stanza:
The flesh of my own body
Subject to old age, sickness and death,
Will start to rot before long.
I will give it to him.
Having had this thought, he called a servant to bring a knife, cut the flesh of his thigh and gave it to the
falcon. The falcon said to the king: "O king, you are giving me fresh meat, but in all fairness, you should
give me a weight of flesh equal to the weight of the pigeon. Make no mistake!" The king said: "I will use
my scales (tula)." He placed [the piece] of flesh on one side and the pigeon on the other, but the pigeon
was heavier than the flesh of the king. Then he ordered the servant to cut his other thigh, but that too was
still too light. In turn he cut his two feet, his rump, his two breasts, his neck and his back. He sacrificed his
whole body, but the pigeon was still heavier than the flesh of the king. Then his ministers and his family
put up a curtain (vitdna) and sent away those who were present, because the king could not be seen in that
state. But king Sibi said to them: "Do not send the people away, let them come in and watch", and he added
these stanzas:
May the gods, men and asuras
Come and contemplate me.
A great mind, an extreme resolve is necessary
To attain Buddhahood.
Whoever is seeking Buddhahood
Must bear great suffering.
If one cannot maintain one's resolution
one should give up the vow [of bodhi].
Then the Bodhisattva, with bloody hands, took the scales and wanted to climb up on them: he maintained
his resolve to balance the weight of the pigeon with his whole body. The falcon said to him: "Great king,
that is very difficult. Why are you doing that? Rather give me the pigeon." The king answered: "The
pigeon has taken refuge in me, I will never give it to you. If I sacrifice my whole body, it is not to gain
treasure or out of concern. At the price of my body, I want to attain Buddhahood." With his hands, he took
the scales, but as his flesh was exhausted and his muscles torn, he could not make his way there and, trying
to climb up [onto the scales], [88c] he fell down. Reprimanding his own heart, he said: " You must be
strong and not anxious. All beings are plunged into an ocean of suffering. You yourself have sworn to save
them all. Why be discouraged? The pain [that you are suffering] is small; the sufferings of hell (naraka)
are great. If they are compared, yours do not make up a sixteenth part. If I who am wise, full of energy,
disciplined and meditative, if I suffer such pain, what about people without wisdom who are plunged into
hell?" Then the Bodhisattva, resolutely trying to climb up, took the scales and gave the order to his servant
to help him. At that moment, his resolve was strong and he regretted nothing.
The devas, nagas, asuras, pisacas, manusyas praised him greatly. They said: "To act in this way for a little
pigeon is extraordinary (adbhuta)." Then the great earth (prthivf) trembled six times, the great sea
(samudra) swelled its waves (taraiiga), the dead trees began to blossom, the gods caused a perfumed rain
to fall and threw flowers. The goddesses sang his praises: "He will surely become Buddha." Then the
devarsi came from the four directions [to praise him], saying: "This is a true Bodhisattva who will soon
become Buddha."
The falcon said to the pigeon: "The test is finished; he has not spared his own life. He is a true
Bodhisattva" and added this stanza:
In the garden of compassion,
He has planted the tree of omniscience.
We must pay homage to him;
He should not be caused any more pain.
Then Visvakarman said to Sakradevendra: "Devendra, you who possess miraculous power, you should
make this king whole in body again." Sakradevendra replied: "It need not be me. The king himself is going
to swear that his great heart was joyful [when] he sacrificed his life and gave it so that all beings could seek
Buddhahood."
Sakra then said to the king: "When you cut off your flesh and you were suffering so cruelly, did you feel
any regret?" The king answered: "My heart was joyful (anandd). I felt no irritation or regret." Sakra said to
him: "Who could believe that you did not feel anger or irritation?" Then the Bodhisattva made this vow:
"When I cut my flesh and when my blood flowed, I felt neither anger nor irritation. I was resolved
(ekacitta) and without regret, for I was heading to Buddhahood. If I am speaking the truth, may my body
become as it was before." Hardly had he pronounced these words than his body became as it was before.
At this sight, men and gods became very joyful and cried out at this miracle: "This great Bodhisattva will
surely become Buddha. We must honor him whole-heartedly and wish that he will become Buddha soon.
He will protect us." Then Sakradevendra and Visvakarman returned to the heavens.
It is by acts of this kind that the Bodhisattva fulfills the virtue of generosity.
Question. - How does the Bodhisattva fulfill the virtue of discipline (sflapdramitd)'?
Answer. - By not sparing his life when it is a question of keeping the pure precepts (visuddhasila). Thus
king Siu t'o siu mo (Sutasoma), for the sake of the great king Kie [89a/ mo chapo t'o (Kalmasapada) went
so far as to offer his life, but did not violate the precepts. "
There was once a king called Sutosoma, 4 " full of energy (viryavat), observer of the precepts (sdadhard)
and always faithful to his given word (satyavddin). one morning he mounted his chariot with his
courtesans (ganikd) and entered a garden (armama) to walk about. When he left the gates of the city, a
certain brahmin who had come to beg said to the king: "The king is very powerful (mahdprabhdva) and I
am a poor man (daridrd). May he have pity on me and give me something." The king replied: "I agree. I
value the teachings of saints (tathdgata) such as yourself; we will make mutual gifts to one another."
Having made this promise, the king entered his garden where he bathed and disported himself.
Then a two-winged king named 'Gazelle's Foot' (Kalmasapada) 4 ^ came swiftly and, from the midst of his
courtesans, seized the king and flew away with him: one would have said it was the golden-winged bird
^ ' A well-know n Jataka « here Sutosoma is none other than the Buddha, whereeas Kalmasapada is Aiigulimala:
Pali sources: Mahasutasomajataka, Jataka no. 537 (V, p. 456-51 1); Cariyapitaka, III, 12, p. 100-101 (tr. Law, p. 124-125).
Sanskrit sources: Jatakamala, no. 31, p. 207-224 (tr. Speyer, p. 291-313); Bhadrakalpacadana, chap. 34 (tr. S. Oldenburg,
on the Buddhist Jdtakas, JRAS, 1893, p. 331-334); Lankaavatara, p. 250-251, contains a summary: Bhutapurvam atiie
'dlmini rajahlnit ... asaditavan inanisalietoh.
Chinese sources: Lieou tou tsi king, T 152 (no. 41), k. 4, p. 22b -24b (tr. Chavanncs, Contes, I, p. 143-154; Hicn yn king,
T 202 (no. 52), k. 11, p. 425-427 (cf. Schmidt, Der Weise und der Thor, p. 300-326); Kieou tsa p'i yu king, T 206 (no.
40), k. 2, p. 517 a-c (tr. Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 405-406); Jen wang pan jo po lo mi king, T 245, k. 2, p. 830; Chinese
versions of the Lankavatara (T 670, k. 4, p. 513c; T 671, k. 8, p. 563a; T 672, k. 6, p. 623c); King liu yi siang, T 2121, k.
25, p. 139a-b.
I in ph I M i i II (i i ii 1 1 1 i n (< riin\ cdcl < iscl i < n >); I / ! urangabad (A. Louchci
i > i i i i i i i i 1 1 i i lui ud ML, I, 261-271 and pi. XXI-XXII); Ajanta (JA,
Apr.-June, 1921, p. 213).
Study: R. Watanabe,77*e Story of Kalmasapada, JPTS, 1909, p. 236-310.
458 The Bodhisattva, called Sutosoma in most of the sources, is called P'ou ming (Samantaprabhasa) in T 152 (p. 22b)
and T 245 (p. 830a). Sutosoma belonged to a well-known family of the Kauravas (Jataka, V, p. 457, Jatakamala. p 207)
and resided at lndapatta (Jataka, V, p. 457) a city located on the present site of Delhi.
45y The anthropophagous Kalmasapada does not have a well-defined identity. In T 152, p. 22c, it is a king named A k'iun
(170 and 5; 123 and 7). - In the Pali Jataka, it is Brahmadatta, king of VaranasT (Benares). - In T 245, p. 830a, it is a
young prince, son of the king officii lo (Dcvala?) - In T 202, p. 425a, it is the son of Brahmadatta, king of Benares and a
lioness. - In the Sanskrit sources (Jatakamala, p. 209, Bhadrakalpavadana, chap. 34: Lankavatara, p. 250), he appears as
the son of a king and a lioness and, as his father was called Sucl , , hi , named luda i n Simhasaudasa. - He is more
(garuda) seizing a serpent (ndga) in mid-ocean. The women lamented and wept; in the garden, in the city,
within and without, there was turmoil and consternation.
Kalmasapada, carrying the king, traveled through space (akasd) and came to his home where he set
Sutasoma down amidst the ninety-nine kings [whom he had already captured]. ° King Sutosoma began to
weep. Kalmasapada said to him: "Great ksatriya king, why are you crying like a baby? Every man must
die; everything composite must decay." King Sutosoma replied: "I am not afraid of death, but I am afraid
of not fulfilling my promises. From the time that I was born, I have never lied (mrsdvada). This morning,
as I was leaving the gates, a certain brahmin came to me to ask for alms and I promised to return to give
him charity. I do not doubt impermanence (anityatd), but if I disappoint this [brahmin] in his expectation, I
am committing a sin (dpatti) of deception. That is why I am weeping." Kalmasapada said to him: "Your
wish will be satisfied. Since you are afraid to break your promise, I allow you to return [home]; you have
seven days in which to give alms to the brahmin; after that time, you will return here. If you have not come
back in that time, by the power of my wings, I will easily bring you back."
King Sutosama was able to return to his native land and give alms to the brahmin as he wished. He set the
crown prince (kumdrd) on the throne. Calling his people together, he excused himself in these words: "I
know that I have not settled everything; my governing was not [always] according to the Dharma. I
recognize your loyalty. If I am not dead by tomorrow, I shall return directly." Throughout the whole
country, his people and his family struck their foreheads to the ground trying to keep him, saying: "We
want the king to mind his country and to continue his kind protection. He should not worry about
Kalmasapada, king of the raksasas. We will build an iron castle (ayogrhd) surrounded by choice soldiers.
No matter how powerful Kalmasapada is, we are not afraid of him." But Sutosoma, who disagreed, spoke
this stanza:
Faithfulness to one's word (satyavdda) is the foremost of the commandments;
The man of his word ascends the stairway to heaven.
The man of his word, no matter how small, is great;
The liar goes to hell.
familiar under the name of Kalmasapada, which certain Chinese sources translate as Po tsou (187 and 6; 157), Pan tsou
(96 and 6; 157), i.e., 'Speckled Foot' (cf. T 202, p. 425b; T 245, p. 830a); according to the Hien yu king (T 202, p. 425b),
this surname was given to him because, born of a lioness, he had feet marked with spots like a lion's fur. In his
sum i I il i mi II, p. 483, Buddhaghosa proposes another explanation: When the anthropophagous king, banished by
his subjects, took flight, an acacia spine pierced his foot, and this wound left a scar like a speckled piece of wood {tassa
kirapade ... hutva ruhi).
The village where this man-eater was tamed was called Kalmasadamya (in Pali, Kammasadamma). It is situated in the
land of the Kuras, and the Buddha preached several important sutras there. Cf. Digha, 11, p. 55, 290: .Vlajjhima, I, p. 55;
II, p. 26; Samyutta, II, p. 92; Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 10, p. 60a29; Tchong a han, T 26, k. 24, p. 578b; Divyavadana, p.
515,516.
460 In T 202 (p. 426a) and T 243 (p. 830b), it was 999 kings whom Kalmasapada had captured.
I wish to keep my promise today.
Rather lose one's life than break it.
[89b] My heart feels no regret.
Having reflected in this way, the king departed and returned to Kalmasapada who, seeing him from afar,
rejoiced and said to him: "You are a man of your word who does not break his promises. Every man seeks
to save his own life. You had the chance to escape from death, but you came back to fulfill your promise.
You are a great man (mahdpurusa)."
Then Sutosoma praised faithfulness to one's word: "The one who keeps his word is a man; he who breaks it
is not a man." He praised truth (satyavddd) in every way and disparaged falsehood (mrsdvdda). Listening
to him, Kalmasapada developed pure faith (sraddhdvisuddhi) and said to king Sutosoma: "You have
spoken well; in return I will release you; you are free. I grant you also the ninety-nine kings, [your co-
prisoners]. May they return, each as he will, to their own countries." When he had spoken thus, the
hundred kings returned [to their homes].
It is in Jatakas such as this that the Bodhisattva fulfills the virtue of discipline.
Question. - How does the Bodhisattva fulfill the virtue of patience (ksdntipdramitd)?
Answer. - When people come to insult him, strike him, beat him, slash him, tear off his skin, cut him to
pieces and take his life, his mind feels no hatred (dvesa). Thus, when king Kia li (Kali) cut off his hands
(hasta), feet (pdda), ears (karna) and nose (ndsd), the bhiksu Tchan (Ksanti) kept a strong mind
(drdhacitta) without emotion (acala).*
4 "! The Mpps tells the story of the bhiksu Ksanti in the following way: In a great forest, Ksantirsi was cultivating
1 'i i i md praclici in kindn i one d king Kali alon i i hi mrtcsa ntcrcd 111 forest
to walk about and disport himself. Having finished his meal, the king stopped to sleep a little, the courtesans, walking
about in the blossoming forest, saw the rsi, paid their respects to him (vaiulana) and sat down at his side. Then the rsi
praised patience and loving-kindness: his words were so fine that the women could not get enough of listening to him and
stayed with him for a long time. King Kali woke up and, not seeing is courtesans, seized his sword (asipatta) and
followed their footsteps. When he found them around the rsi, his lustful jealousy overflowed; with furious eyes,
brandishing his sword, he asked the rsi: "What arc you doing there"? The rsi replied: "I am here to practice patience and
cultivate loving-kindness." The king said: "I am going to put you to the test. With my sword, I will cut off your ears
(karna), youi no I a) md s >ui hands (i to) md feet I a). It you do not get angry, I will know that you are
i ulti\ tting p mi nci ' The rsi m i red "Do as you wish." Then the king drew his sword and cut off his ears, his nose,
then his hands and feet and asked him: "Is your mind disturbed?" The rsi answered: "I cultivate patience and loving-
kindness; my mind is not disturbed." The kin ; id Here lies your body without any strength; you say that you are not
disturbed, but who would believe you?" Then the rsi made this oath: "If I am truly cultivating loving-kindness and
patience, may my blood (sonita) become milk (ksira)." At once his blood changed into milk; the king, astounded,
dcpai d \\i li !i> url i ' it h n in the f< I, a n king (nil ) i i 1 n h d ol th l i used li hiniii
and thunder and (he king, struck by lightning, perished and did not return to his palace.
This anecdote is often told to illustrate the patience of the Bodhisattva (represented here by the bhiksu Ksanti) and the
wickedness of Dcvadatta (here, the evil king).
Question. - How does the Bodhisattva fulfill the virtue of exertion (yiryaparamitafl
Answer. - When he possesses great exertion of mind. Thus the bodhisattva Ta che (Mahatyagavat), putting
his life at the disposal of all [his friends], swore to empty the water of the ocean until it was completely
Pali sources: Khantivadajataka, no. 313 (III, p. 39-43); Jataka, I, p. 45; III, p. 178; VI, p. 257; Dhammapaddattha. I, p.
149 (tr. Burlingamc, Legends, I, p. 241); Khuddakapatha Comm., p. 149; Buddhavamsa Comm., p. 51; Visuddhimagga, I,
p. 302.
Sanskrit sources: Mahavastu, III, p. 357-361; Jatakamala (no. 28), p. 181-192 (tr. Speyer, p. 153-168); Avadanakalpalata
(no. 38), I, p. 932-941; Vajracchedika, v. 14, p. 31; Kosa, IV, p. 229.
Chinese sources: Lieou tou tsi king, T 152 (no. 44), k. 5, p. 25 (tr. Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 161-154; Seng k'ie lo tch'a so
tsi king, T 194, k. 1, p. 1 19a; Ta tchouang yen louen king, T 201 (no. 63). k. 1 1, p. 320a; T 201 (no. 65), k. 12, p. 325c (tr.
Huber, Sutralamkara, p. 325, 352); Hien yu king, T 202 (no. 12), k. 2, p. 359c-360b (cf. Schmidt, Der Weise und der
Thor, p. 60-6 ., i ii, ,,, pai jo po lo mi Lin ; V 235, p. 750b; Ta pan nie p'an king, T 374, k. 31, p. 551a-b, Ta fang
teng ta tsi king, T 397, k. 50, p. 330b; A yu wang tchouan, T 2042, k. 5, p. 1 19b; Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 3, p.
882b (tr. Beal, I, p. 121; Watters, I, p. 227); King liu siang, T 2121, k. 8, p. 40b-c.
Khotanese sources: Translation of the Vajracchedika, Hocrnlc, Remains, p. 282.
Iconography: Sarnath: AR Arch. Surv. 1907-1908; Central Asia: Lc Coq-Waldscmidt. Spiitantike, VI, 11-12; Formosa:
Ecke-Demieville, Twin Pagoda*; ofZayton, pi. 41 above.
In Liidcrs, Bliarluit and die huddli. Literatur, p. 119-121, there is a comparison between the Pali text of the Jataka and the
Sanskrit text of the Ylahavastu.
The sources enumerated here differ in details. The Bodhisattva tortured by the king is called Ksdntivddin (in the
I ii in i /), i rsi o\ ii 1 1 i I i n under the name of kundaka, ink> a rich iamily from ICasi or
Benares (Pali Jataka) or into a brahmin family in the city of Fou tan na (Putana) in southern India (T 374, p. 551a). The
Mahavastu, III, p. 357, has him coming miraculously from Uttarakuru into the garden (udyaiia) of king Kalabha of
n i i ii) I i i Mi tarakurud ah), but it is
possible that udydna, 'garden' should be corrected to Uddiyana, four or five /;' cast of Moung kie ii (Mahgalapura or
Manglaor (Si yu ki, k. 3, p. 882b). - The cruel king who tortured Ksanti is usually called Kali. The reading Kalihgaraja
found in the Vajracchedika in Sanskrit is a faulty correction that the Chinese translators have not accepted. Apart from
Kali, the reading Kaldbu is also found (Pali sources, T 194, p. 119a; T 374, p. 551a) and Kalahha (Mahavastu). This king
i i "m I in Bcnai in the ICasi region (Varanasi) ICasij m ipadc) • ordin lo om un In mm i lortu d 1 mti
according to others (especially ali She Pali sources), he was mutilated by his servants, I lie sage hat' excited the anger of
the king by preaching the Dharma lo his women or also, according to T 152, p. 25, and T 194, p. 119a, by refusing io
show him the direction taken by a deer. In the Mahavastu, as soon as they were cut off, the limbs secreted milk. The Pali
I i k iinl 'Ii' i ii il ii i ii i i H ill it I mti dii i! oi In \> i und and \ nt to heaven I na irn livam): as for I i'i In
earth swallowed him up and he fell into Avici hell.
dry, and his resolve was firm. "^ Here again, the Bodhisattva praised the Buddha Pusya for seven days
and seven nights standing on one leg without blinking his eyes. ^
Question. - How does the Bodhisattva fulfill the virtue of meditation (dhydnapdramitd)!
Answer. - When he obtains mastery (vasita) over all the dhydnas of the heretics (tirthika). Thus king
Chang cho li (Sahkhacarya), seated in meditation, had no in- (ana) or out- (apdna) breath. A bird came and
laid her eggs in his top-knot which was in the form of a conch (sankhasikha); ihe bodhisattva remained
motionless (acala) until the fledglings flew away. 4
Question. - How does the Bodhisattva fulfill the virtue of wisdom (prajhdpdramitd)?
Answer. - When his great mind reflects (/ i » | and anal (1 nakti) Thus the brahmin K'iu
p'in t'o (Govinda), the great minister (mahdmdtya), divided the great earth (mahdprthivT) of JambudvTpa
into seven parts; he also divided into seven parts a determined number of large and small cities (nagara),
of villages (nigama) and hamlets (antardpana).®* Such is the virtue of wisdom.
462 The story of Mahatyagavat will be told at length at k. 12, p. 151-152. It is also found in the Mahavastu, II, p. 89-91;
Lieou tou tsi king, T 142 (no, 9), k. 1, p. 4a-5a (tr. Chavannes, Contes, p. 89-91); Hien yu king, T 202, (no, 40), k. 8, p.
404b-409c (cf. Schmidt, Der Weise und der Thor, p. 227-252); King liu yi siang, T 2121, k. 9, p. 47b-48a. The theme of
the man who tried to empty the water of the ocean is met again in an anecdote of the Manas tai hi] i Vina l u in 1 il d
by Chavannes, Contes, II, p. 308-312, and in the Cheng king, T 154 (no. 8), k. 1, p. 75b-76a).
463 § ee above.
4M The Mpps, k. 17, p. 188a-b, tells this anecdote as follows: Sakyamuni at one time was a rsi named Chang cho li
(Sahkh rya) with a top-knot in th hapc of a conch (sai)i <A /) ' I I - i liccd the fourth dh n intcrruptin
his breath (anapaiia): seated under a tree, he remained immobile. A bird, seeing him in this posture, mistook him for a
piece of wood and laid li n i ' n his top-knot ( <ha) St i. Hi Bodhi n i inn ml f the dh\ ana and noticed
that he had the bird's eggs on his head, he said to himself: "If I move, the mother will certainly not come back, and if she
does not come ii II spoil therefore he l ntcrcd dhyai md sta I there i i< I Hi i i 1 luids flew away.
The case of nil li u irya is not exceptional: "Wc know that the yogin in Ihc old legends remained immobile on one leg:
the birds made their nests in their hair" (Law, Dognic et Philosophic, p. 183). The King liu yi siang (Chavannes, Contes,
III, p. 237-238) tells of a brahmin in contemplation for three hundred years on whose body there grew a tree.
King Saiikha is well-known in Buddhist legend. He appears in the Gayasfrsasutra, T 464, p. 481cl, and he is known for
his quarrels with his brother Likhila (cf. Chavannes, Contes, IV, p. 120, 132).
465 Extract of a passage from the Mahago\ indiyasutra which was summarized by Senart in the following way: once
there reigned the king Disampati. He had as purohita and counsellor the brahmin Govinda. When the latter died, he
followed the advice of his son, prince Renu, and replaced Govinda by Govinda's son, Jyotipala, who was called
I ill ivinda. Th i 1 tail n il li lo i ah) on the death of Disampati, assured his succession to Renu
by promising to distribute Ihc kingdom amongst the seven of them. When ihc lime came, ii was Vlahagovinda who took
charge of this division of the land, assigning lo each his capital: lie remained in charge of all their affairs: at the same time
he taught seven thousand brahmins and seven hundred sndtakas."
The surra of Mahagovinda is in the DTgha, II, p. 220-252 (tr. Rh. D., Dialogues, II, p. 259-281; Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 3),
k. 5, p. 30b-34b; Ta kien kou p'o lo men yuan k'i king, T 8, vo, I, p. 207-213.
This is how the Bodhisattva fulfills the six virtues.
4. Sojourn in the Tusita heaven.
The Buddha became a disciple under the Buddha Kasyapa, observed the pure precepts
(visuddasiksdpada)™" practiced the qualities (guna) and was reborn in the heaven of the Teou chouai
(Tusita).
Question. - Why was the Bodhisattva born in the Tusita heaven and not above or below it? Possessing
great power (prabhdva), he could have been reborn wherever he wished.
Answer. - 1. According to some, by virtue of the retribution of actions {karmavipdkahetoh), he had to be
reborn in that place.
2. Furthermore, at a level (bhumi) lower than that, the fetters (samyojana) are too [89c] heavy; in a higher
level, they are too light. In the heaven of the Tusitas, the fetters are neither too heavy nor too light, for
there, wisdom (prajha) is safe (yogaksema).
3. Futhermore, the Bodhisattva does not want to miss the time when he is to become Buddha
{buddhapradurbhdvakdla). If he were born in a lower level where the lifespan (dyus) is short (hrasva), his
life would be over before the time of his coming as Buddha; if he were born in a higher level where the
lifespan is long (dirghci), his life would be prolonged beyond the time of his becoming Buddha. But among
the Tusita gods, the span of life coincides with the period when Buddhas appear. 4 " '
4. Finally, the Buddha always dwells in a middling destiny (madhyagati). Now the Tusita gods are placed
in the middle of the gods [of kamadhatu] augmented by the Brahmakayikas: they surpass three classes of
gods, the Caturmaharajakayikas, [the Trayastrimsas and the Yamas] and are below the other three classes,
the Nirmanaratis, the Paranirmitavasavartins and the Brahmakayikas. Having come from the Tusitas, the
T. W. Rhys-Davids, Dialogues, II, p. 270, gives a list of the cities and the tribes that befell to the share of each of the
seven kings; this may be found in DIgha, II, p. 235-236: .Vlahavastii, 111, p. 208: Tch'ang a han, T 1, p. 33a:
City Tribe King
1 . Dantapura Kalinga Sattabhu
2. Potana Assaka Brahmadatta
3. MahissatI Avanti Vessabhu
4. Roruka Sovlra Bharata
5. Mithila Videha Renu
6. Campa Ahga Dhattarattha
7. BaranasI Kasi Dhatarattha
466 The Buddha was called Jyotipala at tat time.
4 " ' The Tusita gods live 4,000 years, but the days that constitute these years are each equal to 400 ordinary years (Cf.
Ahguttara, I, p. 214: ICirfel, Kosmographie ilcr Inder, p. i'Ml
Bodhisattva was born in Madhyadesa 'Central land'. "° It was in the middle of the night that he came
down from heaven (avatdra); it was in the middle of the night that he left the land of Kia p'i lo p'o
(Kapilavastu) and after having traveled the Middle Path (madhyama pratipad), he attained supreme and
perfect enlightenment {anuttarasamyaksambodhi); it was the Middle Path that he preached to men; finally,
it was in the middle of the night that he entered nirvana without residue (nirupadhisesanirvdna). Because
he loved these 'middles', he was born in the intermediate heaven [of the Tusitas].
5. The four 'vilokanas' and the entry into the womlft"'
When the Bodhisattva had taken birth in Tusita heaven, he examined the world of men in four ways: I)
examination of time {kdlavilokana), ii) examination of place (desanavikoland), iii) examination of family
(kiilavilokana), iv) examination of mother (upapattisthdna).
What is the examination of time? There are eight periods in which Buddhas appear: When the human
lifespan is 84,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000 and 100 years. 470 The Bodhisattva says
to himself: "The duration of the human lifespan is one hundred years; the time of appearance of the Buddha
has arrived." This is the examination of time.
What is the examination of place? The Buddhas are always born in Madhyadesa, for it abounds in gold and
silver, precious substances, foods, picturesque places, and its ground is pure.
What is examination of family? The Buddhas are born into two kinds of family, either the ksatriyas or the
brahmins, for the ksatriyas have great power (prabhdva) whereas the brahmins have great wisdom
(prajhd). It is there that the Buddhas are born according to the need of the times.
4 "° The Madhyadesa in question here is vaster than the Madhyadesa of the old brahmanical literature. The latter is
practically identical with the Aryavarta whereas the Madhyadesa of the Buddhist texts includes fourteen of the sixteen
.Ylahajanapadas. l ; or lis precise limits, see .Vlalalasckcra. II, p. 418-419. Madhyadesa is the birthplace of noble individuals
(purisdjanryd), including the Buddha (cf. Sumahgala, 1, p. 173: Astasahasrika, p. 336).
4 °" The sources are not in agreement on the number of the Bodhisattva's vilokanas:
1. Four vilok m , fixaminatioi if time (I , continent (<l\ nu i ' i.til 1 mm (kula): .Ylahavastu, 1. i 197:
II, p. 1; Lalitavistara, p.. 19-20 (tr. Foucaux, p. 20-21).
2. five vilokanas: examination of mother or parents is added (mata-, janettTvilt : i) lid nakatha, p. 48-49;
Dhammapaddattha, 1, p. 84; Ken pen chouo ... p'o seng, T 1450, k. 2, p. 106b-c (cf. Rockhill, Life, p. 15).
3. Eight vilokanas, adding to the previous five the examination of the period of gestation (ayu), the month of birth {niasa)
id (he date of I ing ( i i \hlinda, p. 193.
4 '° According to the Dlgha, II, p. 2-7, the duration of the human lifespan was 80,000 years under Vipasyin, 70,000 under
Sikhin, 60,000 under Visvabhu, 40,000 under ICrakucchanda, 30,000 under ICanakamuni, 100 under Sakyamuni. See Rhys
Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, 11, p. 6. - these numbers are confirmed In various texts: Tch'an a han, T. 1, k. 1, p. 1;
Ts'i fo king, T 2, p. 150; Ts'i fo fou mou sing tseu king, T 4, p. 159; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 45, p. 790 [under Vipasyin,
the human lifespan is 84,000 and not 80,000 years]; Tch'ou yao king, T 212, k. 2, p. 615c. - Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 135, p.
700c ad Kosa, III, p. 193, have established that the Buddhas appear during epochs of decrease of the lifespan, when the
duration of life decreases from 84,000 to 100 years.
What is the examination of the mother? The bodhisattva asks himself who is the mother who will be able
to bear a bodhisattva as strong as Narayana r ' *
When this examination is finished, he determines that only the family of king Suddhodana, residing in
Kapilavastu in Madhyadesa, is capable of conceiving the Bodhisattva. Having thought thus, he descends
from Tusita heaven and enters the womb of his mother (matrkuksi) without loss of his full-mindedness.
[90a] Question. - Why do all the Bodhisattvas in their last birth (pascima punarbhava) come from heaven
and not from among men)?
Answer. - 1. Because they have climbed up to the supreme destiny (agragati) and, of the six destinies
igati), that of the gods is the highest.
2. Furthermore, coming from heaven, they possess all kinds of beauty (saundarya) and miracles (adbhutd)
which they would not have at their disposal if they were to come from a human destiny.
3. Finally, because men venerate (satkurvanti) the gods.
Question. - All people have a disturbed mind (samalacitta) at the moment of reincarnation {pratisamdhi)
when they enter the womb of their mother (matrikuksi).'^ Why then is it said that the Bodhisattva has an
undisturbed mind when he enters his mother's womb?
Answer. - 1. According to some, at the moment of reincarnation (pratisamdhi), all beings have a disturbed
mind (viparyastamati); but since the Bodhisattva has no loss of mindfulness (nasti bodhisattvasya musita
smrtih), it is said that he enters his mother's womb with an undisturbed mind. When he is in the
intermediate existence (antarabhava), he knows that he is in the intermediate existence. - When he is in the
stage of the Ko lo lo (kalala), he knows that he is in the kalala stage, i.e., when, seven days after
conception, the semen and blood (surasonita) coagulate (sammurchantPr'-'. - When he is in the stage of
the Ngofeou t'o (arbuda), he knows that he is in the stage of arbuda, i.e., two weeks after conception, he
resembles an ulcer. - When he is in the stage of the K'ie na (ghana), he knows that he is in the ghana stage,
i.e., three weeks after conception, he resembles frozen cream. - When he is in the stage of the Wou p'ao
(pesin), he knows that he is in the pesin stage. - When he comes into the world, he knows that he comes
into the world. '4 And so, as he has no loss of mindfulness (smrtihani), it is said that he enters his
mother's womb with correct mind.
4' 1 Narayana is the one who has , w / thi tren thofthi nth erm ol i rii I innin iththi lephantin
which each term is ten times the preceding one. See P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 30, p. 155a; Kosa, VII, p. 73-74.
472 Cf. Samgraha, p. 55.
4 '-' It is thanks to the vijnana that the semen and blood coagulate to form the embryo. For this sammurchana, see
Samgraha, p. 13-14.
474 jjjg ]yrpp§ does no t enumerate the five embryonic stages in the traditional order: kalala, arbuda, pesin, ghana,
prasakha. \\ inch arc found, e.g., in Samyutta, 1, p. 206; Milinda, p. 125: .Ylahavy ulpatti, no. 4067-4071; Tsa a han, T 99
(no. 1300), k. 49, p. 337c; Kosa, II, p. 255; II, p. 58; IV, p. 119. - Here the Mpps omits theprasakhd stage which is also
omitted in Milinda, p. 40 and Visuddhimagga, p. 236. - Some texts have eight embryonic stages; 1-5. kalala ... prasaklia.
2. Let us take another being [than the Bodhisattva] in the intermediate existence (antarabhava). If it is a
male (puman), he experiences a lustful mind (ragacitta) for his mother (matr) and says to himself: "This
woman and I will make love"; on the other hand, he experiences hostility (pratigha) towards his father
ipitr). If it is a female, she experiences a lustful thought for her father and says to herself: "This man and I
will make love" and, on the other hand, she experiences hatred for her mother r' ' The Bodhisattva does
not have these thoughts of aversion {pratigha) or of attraction (anunaya); he knows in advance who his
mother and father are. He says: "This mother and father will nourish (posayati) my body. Being based
(asritya) on them, I will take birth and will attain supreme perfect enlightenment
(anuttarasamyaksambodhi)." It is with this pure mind (visuddhacitta) that he thinks of his parents and, at
the moment of reincarnation (pratisamdhi), he enters into the womb (garbham avakramate). Consequently,
it is said that he enters his mother's womb (matrikuksi) with correct mind.
6. Birth and the thirty-two 'laksanas'
At the end of ten months, with correct mind and without loss of mindfulness, the Bodhisattva left his
mother's womb, took seven steps and uttered these words: "This is my last birth" (pascima punarbhava).
King Suddhodana asked the experts in marks (laksanapratigrdhaka): "Look and see if my son has the
thirty-two marks of the Great Man (dvatrimsad mahapurusalaksana). If he has these thirty-two marks, he
will have two possibilities: if he stays at home (grhastha), he will be a cakravartin king; if he goes forth
from home (pravrajita), he will be a Buddha." The experts said: "The crown prince (kumara) really does
have the thirty-two marks of a Great Man; if he stays at home, he will be a cakravartin king; if he leaves
home, he will be a Buddha." The king asked: "What are the thirty-two marks?" The experts replied:
1. Supratisthapadatah. "The soles of his feet are well set down." The soles of his feet are set down on the
ground without a gap, not even a needle, could be inserted.
2. Aclhastcit pciclatalayos cvkrc jcite sahasrcire santihhike sanemike tryakaraparipurne. "Oil the soles of his
feet are two wheels with a thousand spokes, a hub and a rim and [90b] having three perfections." He has
obtained this mark spontaneously (svatah); it was not made by an artisan. The divine artists like
Visvakarman are not able to make such a perfect mark.
Question. - Why could they not make it?
Answer. - Because these divine artisans such as Visvakarman do not achieve the depth of wisdom (prajna).
This mark of the wheel is the reward for good actions (kusalakarmavipaka). Although the divine artisans
have obtained their knowledge [technique] as a reward of their life, this mark of the wheel comes from the
practice of the roots of good (kusalamulacarya) and wisdom (prajna). The knowledge of a Visvakarman is
6. kesuloniuvustlui (appearance of hair and nails), 7. indriyuvustlia (appearances of the sense'- ), 8. vyanjanuvastlH.
(appearance of the organs). Cf. Kosa, III, p. 38, n. 1; Bukkho daijiten, p. 1420c.
4 ' 5 These behaviors of the gandhan a. the disincarnate being seeking a \\ omb, are described in almost the same words ir
Kosa, III, p. 50-51.
the result of one single existence, but this mark of the wheel comes from a wisdom extending over
innumerable kalpas. This is why Visvakarman could not make it and, still less, the other divine artisans.
3. DTrghangulih: "He has long fingers." His fingers are slender and straight; their arrangement is
harmonious and the joints are accentuated.
4. Ayatapadaparsnih: " He has a broad heel."
5. Jdldngulihastapddah: "The digits of his hands and feet are webbed." He is like the king of the swans
(hamsa): when he spreads his fingers, the webs show, when he does not spread his fingers, the webs do not
show. 476
6. Mrdutarunapdnipddah "His hands and feet are soft and delicate." Like fine cotton cloth (suksmam
karpasakambalam), these members surpass the other parts of his body.
7. Utsahgacaranah: "He has a prominent instep." When he treads on the ground, his foot neither widens
nor retracts.
4 '° But in Sanskrit, jala docs not mean 'web', and Burnouf, reluctant to place the Buddha "in the class of palmipeds",
understands: "The digits of his hands and feet are reticulate." Fouchcr (Art Greeo-boiiddluqae, 11, p. 306-3 12) adopts this
interpretation and sees in these networks the lines of a hand "which have always played a pari in chiromancy and, in our
day, are used injudicial identification." Moreover, he establishes that, in representations of the Buddha, "the Gandharan
sculptors showed only detached hands and hands separated from their sculptures, and did so only when constrained by the
special needs of the construction." This opinion is held by J. N. Banerjea, The webbed fingers of Buddha. 1HQ, VI, 1930,
p. 717-727. W. F. Stutterheim, Le jalalaksana de Vimage du Bouddha, Act. Or., VII, 1928, p. 232-237, referring to a
passage of the Sakuntala, claims thai jala means the red lines of tha hand held up to the light of the sun. A. K.
• omarasv iii« Thi wi <bed Hngei oj Buddha, IHQ, VII, 1931, p. 365-366, accepts Stutterheim's translation in the
original meaning of jala and explains, along with Fouchcr and Banerjea. the semantic shifl of jala, in the sense of
membrane, as a misinterpretation of the sculptures. Answer of J. N. Bancrj i / f Bi ha IHQ, VII,
1931, p. 654-656..
Nevertheless, the texts are explicit. Without saying anything about the stercoptyped Tibetan translation: phyags dan tabs
dm bas hbrel pa, "his hands raid feet arc attached by a membrane", the old translators and commentators agree in
attributing to the Buddha hands and feet like "the king of the swans", and Senart, Legende du Bouddha, p. 145, was
perhaps correct to understand 'membrane'. Here are some references:
Dirghagama, third mark (T 1, p. 5b: His hands and feel ha\ c a netted membrane (wang man: 120 and 8; 120 and 1 1) like
tn ' i i il ih I iilli in, i rama T 26, P. 686b: His hands and feet have a netted membrane (wang
man) like the king of the geese (yen wang). - Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, sixth mark (T 1450, p. 108c): His hands and feet
havi netted membram (wa <; mat 1 ilita i I u i ol I i> il a, dnin Ih mark (T 187, p. 557a): The digits of his hands
mil II i i in litln M ii i 120 and 8; 177 and 7). - Abhinisluamanasutra, seventh mark (T190, p.
b')2c): The space between the digits of the ICumara's hands anil leet is netted (lo wang). ■ Pahcavimsati. third mark ('1
220, vol. 6, p. 967b): between each of the digits of the Bhagavafs hands and feet there is a in id d nn mbi un i u, i n n< I
like in the king of the geese (yen wang). - Dasasahasrika, p. 108: tasya hastapadayor jalany avanaddliani yadrsam
anyapurusanani nasti. Vibhasa, sixth mark (T 1543,p. 888a): His hands and feet are marked with a netted membrane
(wang man), that is to say, between the digits of the Buddha's hands and feet there is a net membrane like the digit of the
1 .'1 il tin ii l. - Aloka, p. 91 ,< /dhangab)
The soles of his feet (pddatala) are like a red lotus (padma) in color; between the toes there is a membrane;
the ends of his feet are the color of real coral (pravada); the toenails (nakha) have the color of polished red
copper (tdmra); the upper side of his feet are golden in color (suvarnavarna) and the hairs (roma) covering
it are the azure of lapis-lazuli (yaiduryd). These colors are marvelous; one would say an assortment of
jewels, a varicolored necklace.
8. Aineyajangah: "He has the limbs of an antelope." His legs taper gradually (anupuratanuhx) as in
Aineya, the king of the antelopes (mrgardja).
9. Sthitdnavanatdjdnupralambabdhuh: "Standing upright without bending over, his arms reach down to his
knees." Without bending or straightening up again, he can touch his kness with the palms [of his hands].
10. Kosagatavastiguhyah: "The secret part of his abdomen is concealed within a sheath" as in an elephant
of good birth or a high-bred horse (tuclyuthu varcigotni djuneyu hasty ajaneyo vdsvah).
Question. - Then why did his disciples see his secret parts when the Bodhisattva attained supreme complete
enlightenment (unuttcuasumyaksambodhi)!
Answer. - He showed them his sexual organs to save beings and dissipate the doubts of the crowd. Besides,
according to some, the Buddha manifested (nirmimfte) an elephant or a well-bred horse and said to his
disciples: "My sexual organs are like that. "4' '
4 ' ' on this subject, the Mpps will make (lie follow ing comments later (k. 26, p. 251c):
"The Buddha showed the mark of his tongue and his cryptorchidy. Some people had doubts about these two
characteristics of the Buddha's body; they should have been able to attain the Path but because of these doubts, they did
not. That is why the Buddha showed them these two marks. He put out his tongue and it covered his whole face: although
Ui Ion u< i I u i ii cut 1 1 isily into his mouth. Some people, seeing the Buddha put out his tongue, may have
fell contempt because pulling out one's tongue is the mark of a small child. But when they saw him put his tongue back in
and preach the Dharma without any difficulty, they felt respect and cried out at the wonder. Some people had doubts
about the cryptorchidy of the Buddha, an invisible mark: then the Bhagavat created a marvelous elephant or a wondrous
stallion and, showing them, he declared: "My cryptorchidy is an invisible mark quite like that." Some even say thai the
Buddha took out his sex organs and showed them to someone to suppress his doubts. Teac hi i I caryd) say thai
[by this action] the Buddha shows his great compassion for, if a man sees the Buddha's cryptorchidy, he can accumulate
roots of merit {kusakainuki) and produce Hi mind < i iimn it i unyaksambodln "
We know in fact that several times the Buddha exhibited his sex organs and showed his tongue to ihc brahmins, experts in
marks, who had come to examine him. Ambattha, Brahmayu and Sela were successively favored with this sighs, Ihc
episode is always told in the same words in the Pali sources « hereas the Chinese versions introduce some modifications.
Ambatthasutta in Dlgha, I, p. 106; Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 13, p. 87c; Fo k'ai kiai fan tche a p'o king, T 20, p. 263b (in the
latter text, the Buddha just puts out his tongue).
Brahmayusutta in Majjhima, II, p. 143; Tchong a han, T 26, k. 41, p. 688b; Fan mo yu king, T 76, p. 885b.
Selasutta in Suttanipata, III, no. 7; Majjhima, II, no. 92 (same as preceding).
The story is always the same: The brahmin comes to sec if Gautama has the thirty-two marks of a Buddha. He easily
deli liiim ll it) '''uui n m a! i.i, di bod of tin ik i'i villi I o exception tin ibnormal arrangement of the sex
org in t . )hita Vi tth uh) liti i illy, the part to be hidden by clothing enclosed in a sheath, and the hugeness of the
iii u ' i |Im nih' ! ltd lli thou h I In I iiahmin does indeed see in me the thirty-two marks of the Great
230
11. [Nyagrodha] parimandalah: Like the nyagrodha tree, the Buddha's body is rounded and is of the same
size on all four sides.
12. Urdhvagraromah: "His hair rises up." on his body his hair curls upwards (tasya kdye kesaromani
atclny urdlivam akuncihlni).
13. Ekaikaromah: From each of his pores there arises a single hair (tasyuikcu-onuikupebhya ekaikdni
romdni jdtdni); his hairs are not disarranged (aviksiptdni); they are blue -black (mldni), of the color of lapis-
lazuli (vaidiirya), curved to the right {praduksinuvurtuni) and standing up (urdhvdgrdni).
14. Suvarnavarnah: "He is golden in color."
Question. - What is this golden color?
Answer. - Placed beside gold (suvarna), iron (ayas) has no brilliance. The gold of today compared to the
gold of the time of a Buddha has no brilliance. The gold of the time of a Buddha compared to the gold of
the river Jambu (jambunadasuvarna) has no brilliance. The gold of the river Jambu compared with the
golden sand of the great ocean (mahdsamudra), on the path of a cakravartin king has no [90c] brilliance.
The golden sand compared with the golden mountain has no brilliance. The golden mountain compared
with Sumeru has no brilliance.
The gold of Mount Sumeru compared with the gold of the Trayastrimsa gods' necklaces (keyura) has no
brilliance. The gold of the Trayastrimsa gods' necklaces compared with the gold of the Yama gods has no
brilliance. The gold of the Yama gods compared with the gold of the Tusita gods has no brilliance. The
gold of the Tusita gods compared with the gold of the Nirmanarati gods has no brilliance. The gold of the
Nirmanarati gods compared with the gold of the Paranirmitavasavartin gods has no brilliance. The gold of
Man except for two. He hesitates about these two, he doubts and does not have conviction or certainty {kankhati
\ l, namely, the abnormal arrangement of m\ i n n i th 'i i/ i i
tongue." Then the Bhaga\at cieated in his own image a magic il pparition I / i i
1 i' ill ii ilit I i ilnnu |,, t ii in t in In t In it ith I hen the Bhagavat, putting out his tongue,
touched and patted (anumasi patimasi) his two ears (kannasota), his two nostrils (nasikasoti) amd covered his whole
forehead v\ ith his tongue {keralain pi iialatainaudalain jivhaya chadesi).
Such an exhibition shocked .Vlcnandcr deeply: in the Vlilindapaiiha (p. 167 sq.), he asks Nagascna how the Buddha was
able "to show his cryptorchidy (/< ol > tth w • i to thi bi hmin I i in thi m d I >l th foui i i ml lii in th
presence of gods and men." Nagasena answers that the Bhagavat did not show his secret parts but rather showed a
i i i I p'i in ii f i i I 1 i tit! i lin i i i I i Idhagh u
Sumaiigala, 1, p. 276. thinks it is proper to add that the apparition thus created was fully clothed in his undergarment
(nivasananivattlHi). girdled with a belt {kayahaiullianahaddlia). covered with a robe (civwaparuta). and that ii consisted
solely of spectral substance (cluiyarupakamatta).
But wc ask in vain with Rhys Davids (Dialogues oj the Buddha, I, p. 13 1, n. 1) how Ambattha and others could have seen
the Buddha's cryptorchidy in a fully clothed phantom. This is why it may be preferable to accept the explanation
proposed here in the Mpps and believe that the Buddha created a magical elephant or stallion. sa\ ing to his disciples "My
sex organ is like that."
the Paranirmitavasavartin gods compared with the gold of the Bodhisattva's body has no brilliance. Such is
this mark of the golden color.
15. Vydmaprabhah: "He has an aura the breadth of an armspan." He has an aura the breath of an armspan
(vydma) on all four sides. In the center of this aura the Buddha has supreme beauty; his splendor is equal to
that of the king of the gods (devardja).'°
16. Suksmacchavih: "He has fine skin." Dust does not adhere to his body (rajo 'sya kdye navatisthati); he is
like the lotus leaf (utpala) that holds neither dust nor water. When the Bodhisattva climbs a mountain of
dry earth, the earth does not stick to his feet. When the wind blows up a storm to destroy the mountain
which becomes dispersed as dust, not a single dust grain sticks to the Buddha's body.
17. Saptotsadah: "The seven parts of his body are well-developed." Seven parts of the body: the two hands
(hasta), the two feet (pdda), the two shoulders (amsa) and the nape of his neck (gnvd) are rounded, of fine
color and surpass all other bodies.
18. Citdntardmsah: "The bottom of his armpits are well-developed." They are without bumps or hollows.
19 Simhapurvdrdhakdyah: The front part of his body is like that of a lion."
20. Brhadrjukdyah: "His body is broad and straight." Of all men, his body is the broadest and the
straightest.
21. Susamvrttasaskanclah: "His shoulders are completely rounded." He has no peer amongst those who
straighten their shoulders.
22. Catvdrimsaddantah: "He has forty teeth", neither more nor less. Other men have thirty-two teeth; their
body consists of more than three hundred bones (asthi) and the bones of their skull (sirsakdsthi) are nine in
number. 4 '" The Bodhisattva has forty teeth and his skull is a single bone. In him, the teeth are numerous
but the bones of the skull are few; among other men, the teeth are few but the skull bones are numerous.
This is how the Bodhisattva differs from other men.
23. Aviraladantah: "His teeth are closely spaced." No coarse (sthula) or fine (suk$ma) material can get in
between his teeth. People who do not know the secret mark of his teeth say that he has but one single tooth.
one could not introduce a single hair (rowan) between them.
24 . Siikkickintaly. "His teeth are white"; they surpass the brightness of king Himavat.
4 '° This mark constitutes the usu il I rilli ini e (prai ihlul) of the Buddha. In the phantasmagoria of the Prajnas, the
Buddha first emits rays from all parts of his body, then from all the pores of his skin; then only finally docs he manifest
his usual brilliance, an armspan in w idth, to make himself know n Us the spectators; sec below, k. 8, p. 1 14c.
479 The Mpps departs here from the facts of the Vibasa, T 1545, k. 177, p. 888c: Other men have only 32 teeth and their
body contains 103 bones; the Buddha has 40 teeth; how can it be said that his body contains only 103 bones and not
more? Among other men, the bones of the skull are nine in number, whereas in (he Bhagavat the skull is only one piece.
This is why the Buddha also has 103 bones.
The Buddha's teeth are relics highly sought after: cf. Hobogirin, Butsuge, p. 204.
25. Simhahanuh: "He has the jaw of a lion." Like a lion, king of the beasts, his jaw is straight (sama) and
broad (vipula).
[91a] 26. Rtistirtisugrtipruptah: "He has the best of all tastes." Some say: When the Buddha puts food into
his mouth (mukha), all foods take on an exquisite flavor (rasdgra). Why? Because in all these foods there
is the essence of exquisite flavor. People who do not possess this [26th] mark cannot give off this essence
and as a consequence do not have this exquisite taste. - Others say: When the Buddha takes food and puts it
in his mouth, the ends of his throat (gala) secrete ambrosia (amrta) which concentrates all flavors
(rasa).® As this food is pure, we say that he possesses the best of all tastes (rasanam rasagrah).
27. Prabhutajihvah. "He has a broad tongue". When the Buddha sticks his great tongue out of his mouth, it
covers all the parts of his face up to the top of his hair (sarvum mitkhumandulum avacchadayati
kesaparyantam). But when he puts it back in, his mouth is not filled up.
28. Brahmasvarah. "He has the voice of Brahma." 4 " 1 Five kinds of sounds come from the mouth of
Brahma, king of the gods: i) deep as thunder; ii) pure and clear, able to heard from afar and delighting the
listeners; iii) penetrating and inspiring respect; iv) truthful and easy to understand; v) never tiring the
listeners. These are also the five intonations from the mouth of the Bodhisattva. - [Other marks] "He has
the voice of a sparrow (kalavinkabhanin)": his voice is pleasant (manojna) like the song of the kalavinka
bird.
"He has the voice of a drum (dundubhisvara)" : his voice is deep and powerful like that of a great drum.
29. . ibhinilanetrah: "His eyes are deep blue" like a beautiful blue lotus (nilotpala).
30. Gopaksmanetrah: "His eyelashes are like those of an ox." Like the king of the oxen, his eyelashes are
long (dirgha), beautiful (abhirupa) and well-arranged (aviksipta).
31. UsnTsasTrsah: "His head is crowned with a protuberance." The Bodhisattva has a bony chignon like a
fist on his head. °^
32. Urna: "He has a tuft of white hairs." A tuft of white hair grows between his eyebrows (urna casya
bhruvor madhye jata), neither too high nor too low. It is white (sveta), whorled to the right
(pradaksinavarta), growing easily and at the height of five feet. 4 "-'
The experts in marks added: "In earth and heaven, the youg prince (kumara) possesses the thirty-two marks
of the Great Man (mahapurusalaksana) which all Bodhisattvas possess."
4 °° According to T 261, k. 4, p. 883. everything thai the I athagata consumes, drinks, solid i'ood, fish, is transformed into
ambrosia in contact v\ ith his lour canine teeth.
481 p or these five, eight ten and sixteen qualities of (he \ oice of Brahma, cf. Hobogirin, Bonnon, p. 133-134.
482 p or m ; s jj^j-jj see Foucher, ylrf Greco-bouddhique, 11, p .289-300; A. K. Coomaraswamy, The Bin Id/i '■ < da hail
usnisa and crown, JRAS, 1928, p. 815-840; J. N. Bancrjca, Usnisasiraskata in die early Buddlusl images of India, 1HQ.
VII, 1931, p. 499-514.
483 For the urna, see Foucher, Art Greco-bouddhique, II, p. 288-289.
Question. - The cakravartin king also possesses these thirty-two marks. In what way are those of the
Bodhisattva different?
Answer. - The marks of the Bodhisattva prevail over those of the cakravartin king in seven ways: they are
i) very pure, ii) very distinct (vibhakta), iii) ineffaceable, iv) perfect, v) deeply marked, vi) conforming
with the practice of wisdom (pra/Hdcarydnusdrin) and not conforming to the world (lokanusarin); vii)
lasting (desasthd). The marks of a cakravartin king do not have these qualities.
Question. - Why are they called marks (laksana)'?
Answer. - Because they are easy to recognize. Thus water, which is different from fire, is recognized by its
marks.
Why does the Bodhisattva have thirty-two marks, neither more nor less?4°4
Some say: The Buddha whose body is adorned (alamkrta) with the thirty-two marks is beautiful (abhirupa)
and well-arranged (aviksipta). If he had less than thirty-two marks his body would be ugly; if he had more
than thirty-two marks he would be untidy. Thanks to the thirty-two marks, he is beautiful and well-
arranged. Their number cannot be increased or decreased. The bodily marks [91b] are like the other
attributes of the Buddha (buddhadharma ) which cannot be increased or decreased.
Question. - Why does the Bodhisattva adorn his body with marks?
Answer. - 1. Some people have attained purity of faith (sraddhdvisuddhi) by seeing the bodily marks of the
Buddha.4°5 This is why he adorns his body with marks.
2. Furthermore, the Buddhas triumph (abhibhavanti) in every way: they triumph by means of their physical
beauty (kayarupa), power (prabhava), clan (gotru). family (jati), wisdom (prajna), dhydna, deliverance
(vimukti), etc. But if the Buddhas did not adorn themselves with marks, these superiorities would not be as
numerous.
3. Finally, some say that supreme perfect enlightenment (anuttarasamyaksambodhi) resides in the body of
the Buddhas but that if the corporeal marks did not adorn their body anuttarasamyaksambodhi would not
reside in them. Thus when a man wishes to marry a noble maiden, the latter sends a messenger to him to
say: "If you wish to marry me, you must first decorate your house, remove the filth and the bad smells. You
must place in it beds, covers, linen, curtains, drapes, wall-coverings and perfumes so as to decorate it. only
after that will I enter your house." In the same way, anuttarasamyaksambodhi sends wisdom (prajna) to the
Bodhisattva to say to him: "If you want to attain me, first cultivate the marvelous marks and adorn your
body with them. only after that will I reside in you. If they do not adorn your body, I will not reside in
you. "4°° This is why the Bodhisattva cultivates the thirty-two marks and adorns his body with them, to
attain anuttarasamyaksambodhi.
484 See the reply of Parsva to this question in the Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 177, p. 889a.
4 °- ) This was the case notably for Ambattha, Brahmayu and Sela. See above.
4 °" This prosopopeia of the Buddha and an llai mya im ill i i Inn risli fthc I'rajhaparamita litci liu \\h li
tends to make out of prajna the Mother of the Buddhas; cf. T 220, k. 306, p. 558b: All the Tathagatas depend on the
7. Enlightenment and Buddhahood
Then the Bodhisattva gew up gradually and, having seen an old man, a sick man, he experienced disgust
(nirvedd) for worldly things. At midnight, he left his home {abhiniskramana) and practiced asceticism
(duskaracarya) for six years. Then he ate some sweetened milk-broth (pdyasa) of sixteen restorative
qualities offered to him by the brahmanl Nant'o (Nanda) and, under the tree of enlightenment (bodhivrksa),
he defied Mara's army of 18,000 kotis of warriors and attained supreme perfect enlightenment
(anuttarasamyaksambodhi).
Question. - What qualities must he have to attain in order to be called Buddha?
Answer. - 1 . He is called Buddha when he has acquired the knowledge of cessation (ksayajnana) and the
knowledge of non-arising (anutpadajnand). '
2. According to others, he is called Buddha when he has acquired the ten strengths (dasa baldni), the four
fearlessnesses (catvdri vaisdraydni), the eighteen special attributes (astddasdvenikd huddhadharmdh), the
three knowledges (tisro vidydh), the [four] penetrations (catasrah pratisamvidah), the three
smrtyupasthdnas or equanimities (i. When one listens to the Dharma and one respects it, the Buddha feels
no joy. ii. When one does not listen to the Dharma and one scorns it, the Buddha feels no sadness, iii.
When one both respects and scorns the Dharma, the Buddha feels no emotion), great loving-kindness
(mahdmaitri) and great compassion (mahdkarund), the thirty-seven auxiliaries to enlightenment
profound Prajiiaparamita to rcaliz i i rti) th In nature (tatha l h immil (n ' I of all dharma n J tlah
anuttarasamyaksambodhi. That is why it is said that the profound Pia|ii a i mil i i\es bnth to the Buddhas, is 'the
Mother of the Buddhas'. - In the chapter dedicated to the Mother of the Buddhas, the I'ahcavimsati (I 223. k. 14, p. 323b)
says that the actual Buddhas of the (en directions contemplate the profound 1'rajhaparamita with (heir buddha-cyc because
it gives birth to all the Buddhas who have attained it, that all the Buddhas who have attained ii, attain ii and who will
attain anuttarasamyaksambodhi, attain ii thanks to 1'rajhaparamita. - Many sutras are dedicated lo the glorification of the
'Mother of the Buddhas': cf. T 228, 229 and 258. - Many times, the Mpps shows in what sense this metaphor should be
taken: k. 34, p. 314a: The Prajnaparamita is the Mother of the Buddhas. Among parents, the mother is the most
meritorious: this is because the Buddhas consider the prajna as their mother, flic pratyutpannasamadhi (described in T
416 4!')) is their father: this samadhi can nil i i I n i n ( hat prajna ma realized, but
cannot perceive she true nature of dharmas. 1'rajhaparamita itself sees all the dharmas and discerns their true nature. As a
result of this great merit, it is called Mother; - k. 70, p. 550a: Prajnaparamita is the Mother of the Buddhas, this is why the
Buddha is supported by being based on it. In other sutras it is said that (he Buddha, relies on the Dharma and thai the
Dharma is his 1 i i i ill I I I i bhuti th I i i i 1 n|iiapaiamita.
All these metaphors prepare the way foi the 'Sakti-ism' of the Vajrayana which pairs the Buddhas and bodhisattvas with
female deities, with Vlahisis such as Locana. 1'andaravasini, .Vlamaki, Tara, etc. Cf. H. von Glascnapp. tiuddlustische
Mysterien, p. 154 sq.
4 °' These two knowledges comprise bodhi: by means of the first, one knows in truth that the task has been accomplished;
by means of the second, one knows that there is nothing further to be accomplished (Kosa, VI, p. 282; VII, p. 10). But it
should not be forgotten that there are three kinds of bodhi and that only the Buddha possesses anuttarasamyaksambodhi.
(saptatrimsad bodhipaksyadharamdh) and awareness of the general and specific characteristics of
'••.-i tin trvctdh una vasan invalaksana).^
Question. - Why is he called Bodhisattva as long as he has not attained Buddhahood and loses this name
when he has acquired Buddhahood?
Answer. - As long as he has not attained Buddhahood, his mind remains subject to [91c] desire (trsna) and
attachment (sanga); he seeks to secure anuttarasamyaksambodhi; this is why he is called Bodhisattva. But
when he has attained Buddhahood and acquired the various great qualities (guna) of the Buddhas, he
changes his name and is then called Budda. Thus a prince (kumdra) is called prince as long as he is not
king (rdjan), but when he becomes king, he is no longer called prince. Since he is king, he is no longer
called prince even though he is the son of a king. In the same way, as long as the Bodhisattva has not
attained Buddhahood, he is called Bodhisattva, but when he has attained Buddhahood, he is called Buddha.
In the Sravaka system, the disciples of Mahakatyayanlputra define the Bodhisattva in the way that we have
just described.
THE BODHISATTVA IN THE MAHAYANA SYSTEM
The practitioners of the Mahayana say: The disciples of Katyayanlputra are beings [immersed] in samsara;
they do not recite and do not study the Mahayanasutras; they are not great bodhisattvas; they do not
recognize the true nature (satyalaksana) of dharmas. By means of their keen faculties (tiksnendriyci) and
their wisdom (prajhd), they have theories about the Buddhadharma: they define the fetters (samyojana),
cognition (jndna), samddhi, the faculties (indriya), etc. If they commit errors in these various subjects,
what would happen if they were to give us a theory (upadesa) regarding the Bodhisattva? If a weak man
who wants to jump across a little brook does not succeed in crossing over, what would he do if he comes to
a great river except to sink and drown and be lost?
Question. - How is he lost?
I. Actions producing the thirty-two murks
Answer. - The disciples of Mahakatyaniputra have said that one is called bodhisattva after three
asamkhyeyas. But already in the course of these three asamkhyeyas, the bodhisattva has experienced no
regret in giving his head (siras), his eyes (nayana), his marrow (majjd) and his brain; such a sacrifice could
not be attained by the arhats or the pratyekabuddhas.
Thus at one time, the Bodhisattva, the great chief of a caravan (Sa t'o p'o, sdrthavd) was voyaging on the
ocean. A violent wind having destroyed his ship, he said to the merchants: "Take hold of my head (siras),
my hair (kesa), my hands (hasta) and my feet (pada) and I will take you across." When the merchants took
488 See the definition of these various attributes in Samgraha, p. 285-305.
hold of him, he killed himself with his knife (sastra). As a general rule, the ocean does not retain corpses
(kunapa); a brisk wind began to blow and brought them to the shore. °" Who would dare to deny that this
was an act of great compassion (mahdkdrunika)!
When he had finished the second asamkhyeya and not yet entered into the third, the Bodhisattva received
from the Buddha DTpamkara the prophecy (vydkarana) that he would be Buddha. Then he rose up into the
sky (dkdsa), saw the Buddhas of the ten directions (dasadigbuddha) and, standing up in space, he praised
the Buddha Dipamkara. "" The Buddha DTpamkara had said to him: "In one asamkhyeya, you will be
Buddha with the name Sakyamuni." Since he did indeed receive this prophecy (vydkarana), could one say,
without committing a grave error, that he was not already Bodhisattva?
[92a] The disciples of Katyayanlputra have said that, during the three asamkhyeyas, the Bodhisattva did
not possess the marks (laksana) of the Buddha and did not yet accomplish the actions producing the thirty-
two marks (dvt • alal takai tan) [If this is so], how would they know that he is Bodhisattva?
Everything must first manifest its characteristic marks; it is only later that one can recognize its reality. If it
has no marks, one does not cognize it.
We Mahayanists say: Receiving the prophecy that one will be Buddha, rising up into the sky, seeing the
Buddhas of the ten directions, these are not the great marks. What was predicted by the Buddha is that one
will act as a Buddha. The fact of acting as Buddha is the great mark. You ignore this mark and you adopt
the thirty-two marks [of the Great Man]. But the cakravartin kings also possess these thirty-two marks, "*
489 This story is told in the Mahavastu, III, p. 354-355:
Bhutapurvam hh i » i irvasatvaiiaii ipruvi
The same story in the 1'ibclan 1 m ital II, 13 (Ir. 1 r, p 'I V m rlh h hi ih i m D i /
(Vasunandana) and, as in the Mahavastu, his companions were saved by holding onto his floating corpse.
In the Hien yu king, T 202 (no. 50), k. 10, p. 42c-422b, she sarthvaha, who lived at the time of Brahmadatta, Liny: of
Benares, is called Lc na did ye (Ratnajaya). - In the Lieou tou tsiking, T 152 (no. 67), k. 6, p. 36b (tr. Chavanncs, Contes,
I, p. 245-247), he is brought back to life by Sakra. - Other details may be found in the Ta pei king, T 380, k. 4, p. 963b.
490 This phenomenon of levitation is mentioned, among other sources, in the Mahavastu, I, p. 239: Saiiiaiiantaravyakrto
' i i t tali - The frieze of Sikri, in the Lahore Museum, which shows
the Bodhisattva four times in the same panel, places him, the last time, at the top of the frieze above the Buddha
DTpamkara (cf. Foucher, Art Greco-bouddhique, I, p. 275).
491 The thirty-two marks adorn the body of the Buddhas and the cakravartin kings. It is said and often repeated that "for
a young man endowed with the thirty-two marks, there are two paths and no others: if he remains al home he will be a
cakravartin king; if he leaves home, he will be a perfect accomplished Buddha" (among other sources, cf. Digha, II, p. 16-
17).
these marks are possessed, in full or partially, by yet other individuals: The Kathavatthu, IV, 7, p. 283, in its refutation of
the (Jttarapathakas, uses as an argument the non-bodhisattvas "who partially possess the marks" (p iesalakhanehi
i itii). - A ordin o li in kono kii I I ' I p. < b inn n th i 1 i th im ti'th uddha ih i
were five hundred young princes endowed with a certain number of marks: three, ten, thirty-one or even thirty-two; in
those who possess thirty-two, they were not very distinct (vyakta). - The Tsa p'i 501 king, T 207, p. 522c, tells of a
cakravartin king, father of 999 sons of whom some had twenty-eighl marks, some had thirty and others had thirty -one.
devas and also maharajas produce them by transformation {nirmana); Nan t'o (Nanda) 4 , T'i p'o la
(Devadatta) 4 "-\ etc., possessed thirty; P'o po li (Bavari) 4 " 4 had three; the wife of Mo ho kia cho
(Mahakasyapa) had the mark of 'the golden color' (suvarnavarna)."* Even people of our generation have
4y ^ Nanda had thirty marks. At k. 29, p. 273a, the Mpps will be more explicit: "Other individuals than the Buddha
possessed the marks.... Thus Nanda, from one lifetime to the next, obtained She adornment of the physical marks: in his
last lifetime, he left h n I in monl i ill h 1 th in n him it a distan Ihcy mi ol him for
the Buddha and rose to meet him." This is an allusion to the Sarvastivadiri Vina) a, Che song liu, T 1435, K. 18, p. 130
(cf. the Tokharian fragment of the same Vinaya in Hocrnlc, Remains, P. 369): "The Buddha was dwelling in Kapilavaslu.
At that time, the ayusmal Nanda the younger brother of the Buddha who had been born to a sister of the Buddha's
mother, had a body quite like the Buddha's with thirty marks and four inches shorter than the Buddha. Nanda had a robe
the same size as the Buddha's. When the bhiksus were gathered together cither at meal lime or in the afternoon, if they
saw Nanda coming at a !i I mi tin n i » > > > ,nJ i < him 'Hci i our gn t b idi i nnin " * Ik n ih \ i inn 'i ir.
they saw that it was not the Buddha..." The same story occurs in the other Vinayas, especially in the Pali Vinaya, IV, p.
173, where there is no mention of the thirty marks. But this detail is known to the Ken pen chouo ... tsa che, T 1451, K.
56, p. 912b.
4 " Bavari had three marks. The Mpps, k. 29, p. 273a, will return to this indi idual, bul thep tgepre enl difficult!!
Poussin in Siddhi, p. 737, translates it as follows: "When Maitreya was a lay person, he had a teacher named Po p'o li
(Bavari), who had three marks: the linia. the tongue covering the face and the cryptorchidy." I [Lamottc] rather would
und i i iiiJ li i When . VI litn ya i 'Whitc-Ga mi nl (m ma hi li i In r, Po p'o li, had three marks: the
urna, the tongue covering his face and the cryptorchidy." This translation is called for not only by the Mpps, k. 4, p. 92a,
which attributes three marks to Bavari, but also by the Parayana (Suttanipata, v. 1019) which recognizes in him the same
lualit) w inn mi a\ i ' // ih ''it "He is 120 years old, in his family he is Bavari, he has three marks on
his body; he is learned in the thru v'edas." L' e an is especially known to the Vatthugathas of the Para) ana (Suttanipata,
V, 1) and to the 57th story of Hien yu king, T 202, k. 12, p. 432b-436c (see P. Demieville, BEFEO, XX, p. 158; S. Levi,
JA, Oct.-Dec. 1925, p. 320-322; Melanges Linossier, II, p. 371-373). In these latter texts, Bavari has only two marks:
black hair (asitakesa) and the broad tongue (prahlnitajiliva)..., he is 120 years old..., he had 500 disciples."
4^4 Devadatta had thirty marks as the Mpps will say later (k. 14, p. 164c28). This detail is known to Hiuan tsang (Si yu
ki, T 2087, k. 6, p. 900a), which has him say: "I have thirty marks, a few less than the Buddha: a great assembly follows
me; how am I different from the Tathagata?" - We know that elsewhere Devadatta claimed to tbe equal to the Buddha in
family and superior to him in his magical powers (Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 47, p. 803a; Che song liu, T 1435, k. 36, p.
257).
4 "- ) The wife of Kasyapa had a body golden in color. The Ken pen chouo ... pi tch'ou ni p'i nai yo, T 1443, k. 1, p. 909b,
tells about hei marria i ith I i tpa "When Kasyapa had grown up, he had a golden statue made and declared to his
parents that he would marry only a woman golden in color like the statue. His parents had three other statues made and
i chofthi tatui i i u ried about in one of the four directions so that the maidens would come and wonder at it. When
young Mian liicn (Bhadra) arrived, she was so beautiful that the brilliance of the statue was eclipsed. Kasyapa's father
made arrangements with Mian liicn's father and the marriage of the two young people took place." (Chavannes, Contes,
IV, p. 151) - An analogous account occurs in Tsa p'i yu king, T 207 (no. 9), p. 52-1 i i in I ha\annes, Contes, II, p.
14-20); Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190, K. 45, p. 862b. - The Apadana, II, p. 578-584, dedicates a chapter to the then Bhadda
Kapilani; it tells her earlier lives and her last lifetime and mentions, in v. 58, her marriage to Kasyapa:
kahcanai ibena vijjitassa me. - See also the comm. on the Therigatha in Rh. D., Psalms oj the Sisters, p. 47-48,
and Manoratha, I, p. 375-376.
one or two of these marks, such as deep black eyes (cihhinF/cinctrci), long arms (ilTrgluihalnt), the upper part
of the body like a lion (simhapurvdrdhakdyd), etc. These various marks are encountered more or less
frequently. So why do you attach so much importance to them?
In what sutra is it said that the Bodhisattva does not accomplish the actions producing the marks during the
three asamkhyeyakalpas? Nan t'o (Nanda) had given a bath to the Buddha Pi p'o che (Vipasyin) and
wished to obtain pure beauty (saundarya). on the stupa of a pratyekabuddha he had painted a wall blue,
and while drawing the image of the pratyekabuddha, he made the vow (pranidhana): "I wish to obtain the
mark of the golden color (suvarnavarna) always." Finally, he built the steps on the stupa of the Buddha
Kasyapa. 4 "" As a result of these three merits (punya), he enjoyed happiness in all his lifetimes and
4 "° See below, Mpps, k. 29, p. 273a: "In a previous lifetime, Nanda had given a bath to the samgha and made the
following vow: 'I wish, ii m existence to cxislcn to I i utiful ( / > nil 11 lull asahii I In tin oursi il
another lifetime, having found the stupa of a pratyekabuddha, he drew the picture of this pratyekabuddha and made the
following vow: T wish that my body be adorned w itli the mark of the golden color from lifetime to lifetime.'
Cf. .Ylahakarmavibhahga, p. 38: vatlui aryasuiularaiHiiuleiia kila Krakulihaiule eti prapta me suvarnavarnata.
S. Levi, who edited this text, found the final stanza in the Fo wou po ti tseu tseu chouo pen k'i king, T 199, p. 199b, also
repeated in the Ken pen chouo ... yao che, T 1448, k. 17, p. 87b: "Nanda tells that at the time of the Buddha Vipasyin, he
had given a warm bath-house to the samgha (or: baths of warm perfumed water) while pronouncing the wish that he
himself and the community be always pure and clean, stainless and without impediments, of irreproachable conduct, and
w ith the color of the lotus. Next he was born among tin id \\\ n imon Imm in i of mat Ion be uity. Later,
seeing the stupa of a pratyekabuddha, he repaired il (or whitewashed it) and covered it with perfumed plaster and
pronounced the vow: T wish that my organs be always complete, that my body be golden in color.' And he was reborn in
Benares, the second son of king Kia t'o or Tchi wei ni: secinr iin lupa of the Buddha Kasyapa, he hung a parasol over it.
And the stanza of (he Karmavibhahga is summarized: 'for having bathed the community, for having plastered a stupa
with golden colored plaster, for having given a parasol to the stupa. 1 have attained innumerable blessings'."
S. Levi refers again to the Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190, k. 57, p. 917, which he briefly summarizes: "The first episode took
place at the time of Vipasyin. at Pandumad where the king Pandu was reigning: filer, at the lime of the Buddha Kasyapa,
the king of Benares was called Ki li che (Krsi). The second son of this king, giving a golden parasol to the stupa of
ICa in also made the vow of being reborn with a golden colored body."
The Pali Apadana, I, p. 57, could also be cited, which does not agree with T 199. Nanda received his golden colored body
from li i in gi n i ol i to i'i B iddh I idumutl ra: I uittara igavato It tliassa narannt i i
But the more detailed story occurs in the Mulasarvativadin Vinaya, ICcn pen chouo. ..tsa che, T 1451, k. 12, p. 260c-261c.
In view of the repute received by the legend of Nanda since the disco\cnc n i fag trjunikonda (see J. P. Vogel, RAA, vol.
XI, 1937, p. 115-118), It seems useful to give the translation:
Having conceived some doubt, the bhiksus questioned the Great Teacher in order to dissipate them: "Bhadanta, whai
actions did the bhiksu Nanda previous!} perform so as to have a golden colored (suvarnavarna) body, to be adorned with
thirty marks (laksaiia), to have a body onh lour inches shorter than the Bhagavat. and so that the Great teacher, having
compassion for a man so attached to pleasures that he drew him out of the ocean of samsara and estabished him at once
into definitive nirvana (ittyiiiiti/aiiiiiraija)'? Please explain this to us,' r
The Buddha said to the bhiksus: That is due to the ripening oi the fruit of actions prev iously accomplished by the bhiksu
Nanda, etc.... And he spoke this stanza: 'Actions do not perish even after hundreds [of millions] of kalpas. Meeting She
239
i i ill omplcx I nclilion n 1 m Ihcy I i urn for their creator ( i /
samagnni prapya kalaiu ca plialanti klialu deliiiiaiii).'
a. Ninety-one kalpas ago, when the human life-span was 80,000 years, there appeared in the world the Buddha Vipasyin,
tathagata, arhat, complel Ij nli htened (san t ) i I endowed with the knowledges and the practices
(i ' . ' i , Ihus-comc l I, know cr of th odd (lokavkl) ithoiit superior l li idi > if (ho
to be converted (pun \ I ca her of gods and men (sasta devainamisyanain), buddh bha i u
Accompanied by 62,000 bhiksus, he traveled amongst men. He reached the city of Ts'in houei (Bandhiimati), a royal
residence, went to the forest and dwelled there. This Bhagaval had a half-brother, very attached to pleasures, whom
Vipasyin, tathagata. arhat, samyaksambuddha, had drawn out of the ocean of samsara and had made him leave the world
(pravrajitd) to place him happily in ultimate nirvana. At that time, the king of the land was called Yeou ts'in
(Bandhumati): he governed his people justly; his estates were prosperous, opulent, abundant, happy and peaceful: there
were no quarrels, no discord, no troubles, no misdeeds, no sickness; the buffalo, the cattle, the rice and the sugarcane
were plentiful. But the half-brother of the king was very carried away bj pleasure. Hearing that the Buddha and his
community were staying in the Bandumati forest, the king ordered the princes, his relatives, his servants, ministers raid
ladies of the harem to go as a retinue to the Buddha. Prostrating al the feel ai' the Buddha, they w ithdrew and sat down at
one side. But the king's brother, deep in his pleasures, did not want to go [with the others]. Then the n
oilier friends went to him and said: "Good friend, don't you know that the king, the princes, the whole c<
people have gone to the Buddha Vipasyin to pay their respects, and by hearing the precious Dharma, lhc\ have obtained
excellent deliverance? The human condition is very rare, but now you have obtained it. Why do you want to give yourself
up to your pleasures without wanting to free yourself?" Hearing these reproaches, the king's brother was filled with
shame; bowing his head, he joined his companions audi thc\ went together. At (hat time., the bhiksu who was the Buddha's
brother saw these friends who had gone together and asked them: "Gentlemen, why are you troinsj iih this man?" The
friends gave the reason. The bhiksu said to them: "I am the Buddha's brother; once when I was living in the world
(gr/itistu), I also was very attached to pleasures: fortunately, the Great Teacher [my brother] forced mc to abandon them
and made mc find peace (ksema) and ultimate nirvana There are still such fools as I was [at one time]. These kind friends
who are leading him away with them are really doing him a great service. You can go to the great Teacher who has no
equal. When you are near him, have deep faith." The companions came to the Buddha who. considering (heir faculties
and their earnestness, preached the Dharma to them. [The king's brother] arose from his seat and, throwing his upper
garment over one should i i / i tva) he joined his palms to the Bhagavat (yena Bhagavanis
tciiai'ijaliiu praijaiuya) and said: "Bhagavat, I would like to invite the great teacher and his noble assembly to come
tomorrow to take a bath in my pool." The Buddha accepted by way of silence, and the young man, having understood that
the Buddha accepted, bowed down to the Buddha's feet, took his leave and went away. Then he went to [his brother] the
king, paid his respects and said: "Great king, I have gone to the Buddha, I have heard the Dharma, 1 have faith and I feel
disgust ( i i ' i foi plcasun 1 hav iskcd the 1 uddh i nd hm u i ha to come tomorrow to take a bath in the
pool. The Tat in ita, th reat Tea In i ha I mdly accepted. The Buddha is entitled to the respect of gods and men; it
would be fitting if the king would have the streets cleaned and the city decorated." The king said to himself: "The Buddha
is going to come to the city; I should have it decorated. My brother's taste for pleasure is incorrigible; it is truly
extraordinary (adhhuta) that the Buddha should have subdued it." [Addressing himself to his brother], he said: "Good,
you may go and prep n li inn i i I >i ih th t tkarana) I will decorate the city in the best possible
way." Very happy, the king's brother took his leave and went away. The king then said to his ministers: "Proclaim
cv cry w here the follow ing edict: Tomorrow the Bhagavat w iil be w ithin our walls. All of you needy people and strangers
must decorate the city, clean the streets and come before the Great Teacher with perfumes and flowers." The n
obeyed and had the royal edict proclaimed everywhere. At once, in the entire city, the crowd began to remove the dirt,
spread perfumes, burn aromalics. hang banners and strew flowers: the cil\ was iike the pleasure palace (nandanavana) of
Sakra, king of the gods. However, the king's brother had prepared hot water and perfumed oils, decorated the bath and set
out beds. When the Buddha Vipasyin was about to enter the city, the ministers, the crown prince, the queen, the palace
people, the courtesans and the citizens went out to meet him, prostrated at his feet and returned to the citv following him.
Then the king's brother led the Buddha into the bath fdled with perfumed water. He saw that the Buddha's body was
golden in color, adorned with the 32 major marks and the 80 minor marl | / t this sight, 1 It great j
md deep faith A hen th bath \ fini li< d "id ih L uddh had put on hi rmcnl ii he pre (rated at the feet pf tin
Bhagavat and made the following vow (praijidhaiia): "1 have had the great good fortune today of meeting an eminent
field of mcnt i i," • ,' ind renderinj him i mall i ii Inn ard i n this good action, I would like my body, in
future lifetimes, to be golden in color like that of the Buddha. The Buddha has already drawn his own brother from the
pleasures to which he had been attached and has placed him in safetj and definitive nirvana. I would also like later to be
the brother of a Buddha and have a golden colored body; and if 1 delight in luxuries. I would like the Buddha to force me
to come out of the deep river of impure desire and lead me io nirvana and the safety of peace (ksemapada).
The Buddha added: Have no doubts, O bhiksu. He who was then the pleasure-loving (mother of king Bandhuma is the
present bhiksu Nanda. It is he who once invited the Buddha Vipasyin to take a perfumed bath in his bath-house and who,
w ilh pure heart, w ished for the reward I have said. Today he is the Buddha's brother and has a body golden in color; as he
delighted in pleasures, i have forced him to go forth, renounce desire and leave home to reach nirvana and the safety of
b. Then the bhiksus, having another doubt, asked the Bhagavat: "Bhadanta, what action did the bhiksu Nanda once
perform to have his body now adorned with the thirty mahapurusalaksana?
The Buddha said to the bhiksus: That is the result of actions that he accomplished.... (as above). once in a village there
was a rich sresthin who had many material goods, great wealth and vast and extensive possessions. He had a garden
(udyana) full of flowers and fruits, with springs and pools, woods and hills, able to serve as shelter for monks. At that
time, there were pratyckabuddhas who appeared in the world and settled in retreats out of compassion for beings: there
was no Buddha in the world; these pratyckabuddhas were the only field of merit (punyaksetrd) at the time. one day a
venerable pratyekabuddha, traveling among men. came to the village and, looking about the area, slopped in die garden.
Seeing him, the gardener said: "Sugata, res! here from your weariness!" flic venerable one setiled in that place and during
ih ni hi mh i. i ini tin i n nil Hon .n fin i ' > inadhi) eing thi ih lard r. r said to himself: "This
Bhadanta has accomplished extraordinary things." Then in the middle of the night, he went to his master and said:
"Master, from now on you may rejoice. A Bhadanta has come to spend the night in your garden; he is endowed with
marvelous powers and possesses the abhijnas; he emits great rays of light (rasmi) thai light up the whole garden." At
these words, the sresthin hastily went to the garden and, prostrating at the feet of the venerable one, said to him: "Noble
one, it is great happiness for me that you have come here to beg your food. Stay here in this garden; I will always give
you your food." Seeing Ins enthusiasm, (lie pratyekabuddha accepted. He stayed in the garden where he penetrated the
sublime concentrations and the bliss of deliverance (vimoksasukha). The he said to himself: "My rotting body has
id i 1 1 1 i i i a ' n ] n i i I h \ I ii hat had to » i I mu i liter nil n nd l i
the unborn (anutpada)." Having this thought, he rose up into the sky, entered into the concentration of the brilliance of
fire {tejahprahliasainwilii) and manifested all the miracles (priitiliinyu): he sent forth great rays: in the upper part of his
body he shone with reddish light: from the lower part of his body there flowed clear water. When he had rejected his
body, he realized the unborn and nin in i , ithoul i idu (; ,', Ihi i vana) Chen i!i resthin took his corpse,
cremated il with aromalics and extinguished the funeral pyre with creamy milk. He gathered the ashes, placed them in a
wherever he was born, he always acquired great beauty. With this stock of merit (punyasesa), he was
reborn at Kapilavastu into the Sakya clan as younger brother [variant ti, preferable to ti tseu] to the
Buddha. He possessed thirty marks of the Great Man and pure beauty. He went forth from home
(pravrajita) and became arhat. The Buddha has said that of his five hundred disciples, the bhiksu Nanda
was foremost in beauty. These marks are thus easy to obtain (sulabha). Then why do you say that the
Bodhisattva must 'plant' (avaropayati) them during ninety-one kalpas while others obtain them in one
single lifetime (janmarifl That is a serious error.
You [disciples of KatyayanTputra] say: "In the course of the first asamkhyeyakalpa, the Bodhisattva does
not know whether or not he will become Buddha. - In the course of the second asamkhyeyakalpa, he does
indeed know that he will be Buddha, but does not dare to announce it. - At the end of the third
asamkhyeyakalpa, he does indeed know that he will be Buddha and he announces it to men." Where did
the Buddha say that? In what sutra did he teach that? Is it in the Three Baskets of the Listeners
(srdvakac/lianuatripitaka), or is it in the sutras of the Greater Vehicle (mahayanasutraf?
The disciples of KatyayanTputra. - Although the Buddha did not say it in the Tripitaka, it is reasonable and
plausible. Moreover, it is what the A p'i t'anpi p'o cha (Abhidharmavibhasa) teaches in the chapter on the
Bodhisattva (Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 176, p. 886c).
new urn, built a sliipa and hung il with parasols (chattra). Filled with respectful faith, lie anointed [the stupa] with thirty
kinds of perfumed waters and made the vow (pranidhana) to seek the marks [of the Great Man].
The Buddha added: "Have no doubts, O bhiksus. The sresthin is now Nanada. As a result of such faith and respect he has
now acquired as reward the thirty marvellous marks."
c. Then the bhiksus had another doubt and asked the Bhagavat: "Bhadanta. what action did the bhiksu Nanda formerly
perform in order that, in the case that he did not leave home {pravrajita) and reject pleasures, that lie would definitely
have played the part of a powerful cakravartin king'/
The Buddha said to the bhikshus: This is the result of actions that he accomplished, etc.... (as above,) once, during the
good kalpa (b> idrakalj hen thi human lifespan was 20,000 years, the Buddha Kasyapa appeared in the world.
Fndo d w ith ten appellations [tathagat oh i tc], he \ laying in iranasi at Rsipatana. in the .Ylrgadava. At tha
lime, the king of the city, Ki li clii (ICrkin) governed the people justly as a great king of Dharma. The king had three sons,
the oldest, the second and the youngest. When the Buddha Kasyapa had finished his ministry, he entered into nirvana like
a flame which has been extinguished. The king took the Buddha's corpse, cremated it with aromatic sandalwood
(candaiia), etc., and extinguished the funeral pyre with perfumed milk, fie gathered the ashes (sanra), placed then: in a
golden urn, erected a great stupa made of four jewels, one yojana long and wide and one-half yojana in height. At the
time of circumambulation, the king's second son placed a parasol (chattra) on top.
The Buddha added: Have no doubts, O bhiksus. He who was then the second son of the king is today Nanda. It was he
who, out of respect, offered a parasol w inch lie placed on the top of the stupa. As a reward for this good action, for 2500
lifetimes he has been a powerful cakravartin king, reigning over one continent (dripaka) and in this actual lifetime, if lie
had not left hi mi (pi ;■ • ajitd), he would also have been a powerful king with the wheel and would have acquired great
sovereignty (aisvarya).
The Mahayanists. - From the first production of the mind of bodhi (prathamacittotpddd), the Bodhisattva
knows that he will be Buddha. Thus, when the [92b] bodhisattva A tcho lo (Acala)^"/^ m m e presence of
the Buddha Tch'ang cheou (DTrghapani?), first produced the mind [of bodhi], he attained the diamond seat
(yajrasana) and immediately acquired buddhahood; errors (yiparydsd) and impure thoughts
(avisuddhacitta) do not arise in him. The four bodhisattvas of the Cheou leng yen san mei
(Suramgamasamadhi) received the prophecy (vydkarana): the first received the prophecy without having
produced the thought of bodhi; the second received the prophecy at the moment when he was about to
produce the thought of bodhi; before the third one recieved it, the others all knew [that he would be
Buddha], but he himself did not know it; before the fourth one received it, the others and he himself knew
it. Then why do you say that in the course of the second asamkhyeyakalpa the Bodhisattva knows the
prophecy but does not dare to proclaim [that he will be Buddha]? - Besides, the Buddha has said that for
innumerable kalpas the Bodhisattva realizes the qualities (guna) in order to save beings. In these
conditions, why do you speak of [only] three asamkhyeyakalpas, which are finite and limited?
The disciples of KatyayanTputra. - Although it is a matter [of these numberless asamkhyeyas] in the
Mahayanasutras, we do not believe in them entirely.
The Mahayanists. - That is a grave error, for [the Mahayanasutras] are the true Buddhadharma
(saddharma) coming from the very mouth (kanthokta) of the Buddha. You cannot reject them. Moreover,
you derive your orgin from the Mahayana;4"° now can y 0U sa y that y 0U d no t entirely believe it?
You [disciples of KatyayanTputra] also say: "The Bodhisattva accomplishes the actions producing the
thirty-two marks in the desire realm (kdmadhdtu) and not in the realm of form (rupadhatu) or in the
formless realm (arupyadhatu)." [Without a doubt], in the arupyadhatu there is neither body (kdya) nor form
(rupa) and, as these thirty-two marks are bodily adornments, it is not possible to accomplish the actions
that produce them in the arupyadhatu. But why could they not be accomplished in the rupadhatu? In the
4"' Acala, or Acalanatha, is well known in Vajrayana Buddhism and the Shingon sect; he is one of the five vidyarajas,
protectors of the Dharma. He is closely connected to Vairocana and Prajnaparamita with whom he forms a trinity. He is
shown bearing a sword and surrounded by flames CI ran edel, Mythol ' ih p 162; W. De Visser, Ancient
Buddhism in Japan, Leiden, 1935, p. 144 sq.; Glasenapp, Buddh. Mysterien, p. 80, 84, 98.
4^° Historically the Greater Vehicle is later than the Lesser Vehicle but its practitioners often claim an origin at least as
old for it. Thi well-known stan i tkaranat of th itrakr'kai d. 1 i, ] pealed in Sid lln 1 ffirm
that the Greater Vehicle is the authentic 'word of the Buddha' because "from its beginning, it coexists in the Lesser
Vehicle (samapravrtteh)" , and the commentary explains: samakalam ca Srayakayancna Mahayanasya pravrttir
upalahhyatc na pascat. - According to some Mahayanists, the scriptures of the Greater Vehicle, like those of the Lesser
Vehicle, must have been compiled after the Buddha's death, and the Mpps, k. 100, p. 756b, seems to confirm them:
"There are those who say: Whereas Mahaka i 1 ipa at the head of the bhiksus, compiled the Tripitaka on
Grdhrakutaparvata immediately after the Buddha's nirvana, the great bodhisattvas, .Ylahjusn, Vlaitreya, etc., taking
Ananda with them, compiled the Mahayana. Ananda knew how to measure the extenl of the aspirations and conduct of
beings: that is why he did not preach the .Ylahayana to the sravakas [whom he judged to be unable to understand this
ieaching]." for this compilation of the Greater Vehicle which took place on Mount Vimalasvabhava, south of Rajagrha,
see also the quotations gathered by Bu ston, II, p. 101.
rupadhatu there are the great Brahmarajas who usually invite the Buddhas to turn the wheel of the Dharma
(dharmacakra). Wise and pure, they are capable of seeking Buddhahood. Why do they not accomplish the
actions producing the thrity-two marks?
You also say: "The Bodhisattva accomplishes these actions in his human births (manusyagati) and not in
the other destinies." But he can accomplish them equally in animal or other destinies. Thus So k'ie tou long
wang (read So k'ie flo] long wang tou - Sagaranagarajaduhita), the daughter of Sagara, king of the nagas,
is abodhisattva of the tenth level (dasama bhumi)," the nagaking^ nap'o ta to (Anavataptanagaraja) is
a seventh-level bodhisattva (saptama bhumiy®®, and the king of the asuras, Lo heou (Rahu) is also a great
4yy Cf. Saddharmapundarika, p. 263-265 (tr. Burnouf, Lotus, p. L 60-162; Kern, p. 251-253). - Although female and only
eight years of age, the daughter of Sagara, king of the nagas. hail acquired anuttarasamyaksambodhi, which consitutcs the
state of Buddha. As the bodhisattva Prajhakuta and Sariputra refused to believe that a woman could attain this high rank,
she suppressed the signs indicating her sex in herself, showed herself endowed with male organs and transformed herself
into a bodhisattva who went to the south. In this part of space there was the universe Vimala; there, seated near the trunk
of a bodhi tree made of the seven precious substances, this bodhisattva appeared in the condition of perfectly
accomplished Buddha, bearing the thirty-two marks of the Great Man, having the body adorned with all the secondary
marks, emitting light w hich spcad in the ten directions and leaching the Dharma.
Here is the Sanskrit text of this p ig< / i riijua i i ti aiuitarliitani pun i i i
/ muad lain uiiuiu. - According to the previous indications, the Mpps is quite correct in making the daughter of
Sagara a tenth level bodhisattva, the ultimate stage of the career of the Bodhisattva and immediately preceding the
attainment of Buddhahood.
Inl llin ih lory oi ra laughtci the Mpps is referring to the Saddharmapundarika: ICumarajiv a. the translator of
(he Mpps. therefore was familiar wish this story. This is worthy of note, for the passage referring to Sagara's daughter was
originally missing from the translation of the Sdhp made by Kumarajlva in 406; it was inserted only later, in the time of
the Souei, in the form of a special chapter entitled Dcvudatta (cf. T 262, k. 4, p. 34b-35c). A tradition claims that the
chapter originally appeared in Kumarajiva's version, but was removed at Th'ang-ngan. However that may be, the
Dcvadatta chapter is old since its contents appeared as early as 286 AD in Dharmaraksa's translation of the Sdgp (cf. T
263, k. 6) and was circulated at the end of the 5th ccnturv in Scrindia audi China independently of the rest of the Sdhp. on
this question, see the P. Demieville's note in Bibliographic Bouddhique, VII-VIII, 1937, p. 95-96 on the work of K. Fuse
(in Japanese).
500 The Mpps will return to this individual later (k. 30, p. 344a): Among the beings immersed in the animal destinies,
some do and others do not obtain Buddhahood; thus Anavataptanagaraja, Sagaranagaraja, etc., obtain Buddhahood. -
Anavatapta is one of the eight great naga kings: he lives in the Anavatapta pool from which flow the four great rivers of
the world (see below, k. 7, p. 1 14a; k. 8, p. 1 16a). According to the Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 18, p. 1 17a, he does not hav e the
three misfortunes of the other three dragon kings, which arc: i) wind and hot sand burn their skin and bones; ii) a violent
wind blows in their palace and uncovers it: iii) She garuda bird torments (hem in the midst of their play. According lo the
Jou lai hing hien king, T 291, k. 2, p. 602c. the rains thai emanate from his body make JambudvTpa fertile. - For more
details, see Hobogirin, Auokudatsu, p. 33. - Whereas the Mpps makes Anavatapta a bodhisattva of the seventh level,
Hiuan (sang (Si yu ki, T 2087, k, I. p. 869b) claims thai he was a bodhisattva of the eighth level before taking on the form
bodhisattva. 5" 1 Why do you say that the Bodhisattva cannot accomplish the actions producing the thirty-
two marks in destinies other [than the human destiny]?
You also say: "The Bodhisattva accomplishes them in the human destiny and in JambudvTpa." It is
reasonable to say that he cannot accomplish them in Yu tan lo (Uttarakuru), for there men are without
individuality (?) (F: personnalite), attached to pleasure (raktd) and without sharp faculties (tiksnendriyd).
But why could they not accomplish them in the other two continents, K'iu t'o ni (Godanlya) and Foup'o t'l
(Purvavideha) where merit (punya), wisdom (prajnd) and duration of life (dyus) are much greater than in
JambudvTpa?502
You also say: "A volition (cetand) is necessary to accomplish each mark." But in the time of a finger snap,
the mind (citta) arises and ceases sixteen times; in one thought, there is neither duration (sthiti) nor parts
(vibhaga),3 how could it accomplish a mark of the Great Man? [On the other hand], a mark of the Great
Man cannot do without a mind for its accomplishment. Therefore [only] the [92c] coming together of many
volitions (bahucetandsamyoga) can accomplish one single mark. In the same way, in order to carry a heavy
load, one single man is not enough; the united strength of several men is necessary. Similarly, in order to
accomplish a mark, a great mind is necessary and to this effect, the joining of many volitions is
indispensible. Therefore it is called 'the mark of one hundred merits' (satapunyalaksana). It is impossible
that a single volition could accomplish a determined mark. If other things cannot be accomplished by a
single volition, what can be said of the mark of one hundred merits?
Why do you say that the mind of the Bodhisattva Sakyamuni was impure whereas that of his disciples was
pure, that the mind of Bodhisattva Maitreya was impure whereas that of his disciples was pure? Where was
that said? We cannot find anything like that in the Tripitaka or in the Mahayana. This statement is your
imagination. You believe that only the Bodhisattva Sakyamuni saw the Buddha Pusya in his cave of
precious stones and praised him with one single stanza for seven days and seven nights. But the
Bodhisattva Maitreya also praised the Buddha Pusya in every way. The A po t'o na king (Avadanasutra or
the Avadanasataka) is the only one that does not say anything about it. If you do not know that, that is not a
sufficient reason. Then you add that the mind of Maitreya's disciples was pure; that is a complete
contradiction.
501 Rahu, personification of the eclipse, appears in two well-known suttas in the Samyutta, the Candimasutta and the
Suriyasutta, which the .Ylpps will reproduce later (k. 20. p. 136b). The palace tifRa.hu is described in the Tch'ang a han. i
I, k. 20, p. 129b. - Rahu has a city called Koiiang miiig, four parks, four wives called Jou ying 'Shadow', Tchou liking
'Perfume', Miao lin 'Marvelous Forest' and C / I mini in 4 irtu In lifi span is 5,000 years where each day equals
500 human year: (1 lobogirin, Isliura, p. 42).
502 These four continents are described in Kosa, III, p. 145.
50: ' Sixteen mind moments arise and cease in the time that a material dharma lasts. "It is better to consider as a self this
body made up of the four greal elements rather than the mind. We see thai this body lasts one year ... one hundred years
ii il ni i B ii ili ii \ iii h l>i ii 'i! ii ii i ol min hi' i ,1111 ' i hi ioi n I ' in) by d 'id I ni hi i
born as one and dies as another. In the same way thai monkey gi one branch, lets it go, tal nolhci ( im ul
II, p. 94-95: Tsa a han, T 99, k. 12, p. 81c). - "Like a mountain river..., there is no kl na, km ul i Ii ic it tests, but
it flows on...; the life of men is short... I hat w hich arises cannot cease." (Anguttara, IV, p. 137).
2. The six virtues
You say: "[By the virtue of generosity], the Bodhisattva gives everything without feeling regret, like king
Sibi who, to save the pigeon, gave his flesh to the falcon without feeling any regret." To give wealth
(dmisaddna) is i li i '.ill (luin kliia); to give one's body (kdyaddna) is a middling gift (madhyaddna); to
give anything whatsoever, provided that the mind is detached (nihsangd) is the highest gift (agraddnd)?^
[By telling the story of the gift of the body by king Sibi], why do you praise the middling gift as if it were
the complete perfection of the virtue of generosity (ddnapdramitdparipuriyl
Although its intention (cittd) may be lofty and full of loving kindness (maitri) and compassion (karund),
this [middling] generosity may or may not involve wisdom (prajhd). [King Sibi] is like a man who would
sacrifice his body for his parents, his family or his teacher. Since he knows that he is sacrificing his life for
a pigeon, his generosity is middling.
[The disciples of Katyayanlputra]. - The Bodhisattva [sacrifices himself] for all beings, for his parents, for
his teacher, or for all people. This is why [if we accept your definition of highest generosity where
detachment plays the essential part], the gift of the body will [never] constitute the complete virtue of
generosity.
[The Mahay anists]. - Although he sacrifices himself for all beings, his mind {cittd) is impure (avisuddha),
for he does not know that he himself is non-existent (andtmaka); he does not know that the one who
recci\ es Ins gift (pratigrd/uika) is not a person, is not his teacher; he does not know that the thing given by
him (deyadravya) is in reality neither the same as (eka) or different (anya) from him. Since his mind (cittd)
is attached (sakta) to the three concepts [of donor, recipient and thing given], it is impure (avisuddha). It is
in this world {lokadhdtu) that he will receive the reward of his merit (punyavipdka); he will not be able to
go directly to Buddhahood. Thus it is said in the Prajnaparamita that the three things [donor, recipient and
the thing given] are non-existeni (anupalabdhdf^ and that he should not be attached to them.
This is applied to the virtue of generosity but it is valid also [for the other virtues] up to and including the
virtue of wisdom. [According to the disciples of Katyayanlputra], to divide the great earth, the cities, towns
and villages and to make seven parts of it is the perfection of the virtue of wisdom [93a]
(prajndpdramitdparipuri). But the virtue of wisdom is immense (apramdna) and infinite (anantd) like the
water of the ocean. To divide the earth is only ordinary mathematics (ganand); it is a modest part
(hmabhdga) of conventional wisdom (samvrtiprajnd), like one or two drops of water (bindu) in the ocean.
°~ 1 <y hi ,n i ncrosily which con itiiti prop i! pi il in ; Ik irtiii ( i m n H\ in /ran ) rcsl in n <
on knowledge free of con cpt {niirii < , ' , Inch makes it triply pure (/ taridalap hli it consists of
making no distinction between the thing given (deya), the donor (dayaka) and the recipient l / ai) Cf.
i in i imi hati, i ( ' < i 1 t "' i | ' Bodhi u ivatara, IX, st. 168; Panjika, p. 604; Uttaratantra, p. 120, 254;
Samgraha, p. 185, 225; Siddhi, p. 629 n.
11 i u ] ini in [ ' ' / i i 1 1 i i ii i i f. Satasahasrika
p. 92.
The true prajnaparamita is called the 'mother of the Buddhas' (buddhamdtri) of the three times (tryadhvan);
it reveals the true nature of all dhaimas ( s i lhai ityalak m). This praji iparamita has no point of
coming or point of going; it is like a magic show (mdyd), an echo (pratisrutkd), the moon reflected in water
(udakacandra) which one sees and which immediately disappears. Out of compassion and, although this
wisdom has but a single nature (ekalaksana), the aryas define it using all kinds of conventional ｅxpressions
(ndmasamketa) as being the precious treasure of the wisdom of the Buddhas (buddhaprajndratnakosa).
You are speaking grave errors.
3. The time of appearance of the Buddhas
You speak of the four examinations (vilokana) made by the Bodhisattva: 1) examination of time
(kdlavilokana), 2) examination of place (desavilokana), 3) examination of clan (kulavilokana), 4)
examination of mother (upapattisthdnavilokana). You add that that the Buddha appears in the world
(prddurbhavati) when the human lifespan (dyus) is 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000,
20,000, 100 years. - But if the Buddhas always have compassion (anukampa) lor beings, why do they
appear only at these eight times and not at others? Just as a good medicine (osadhi) once swallowed, cures
the sickness (vyddhi), so the Buddhadarma does not depend on time.
[The disciples of Katyayanrputra]. - Although the Bodhisattva has compassion for beings and although the
Buddhas do not depend on time, when the lifespan surpasses 80,000 years, long-lived people (dirghdyus)
revel in pleasures (sukha); their fetters, lust, desire, etc. (rdgatrsnddisamyojana) are heavy (sthula) and
their faculties are weak (mrdvindriya). This is not the time to convert them. on the other hand, when the
lifespan is less than 199 years, people have a short life (alpdyus) and are overcome with suffering
(duhkha): their fetters, hatred, etc. (dvesddisamyojana) are thick (sthiila). This period of pleasure [when the
lifespan is more than 80,000 years] and this period of suffering [when it is less than 199 years] are not
times favorable to finding the Path (mdrgaldbha). This is why tha Buddhas do not appear [at those times].
[The Mahay anists]. - 1. The lifespan of the gods is more than 10,000 years; that is because of their previous
life (purvajanma). Although they have plenty of pleasures (sukha) and their sensual desires (rdgatrsna) are
heavy (sthula), they are able to find the Path (mdrga). What could be said then of people who are not
happy and whose thirty-two impurities are easily corrected, [except that they find the Path even more easily
than the gods]? This is why, even when the human lifespan is greater than 80,000 years, the Buddhas must
appear in the world. At this time, people are not sick and their minds are joyful; consequently, their
faculties are keen (tiksnendriya) and they are virtuous. As a result of their virtues and their keen faculties,
they can easily find the Path.
2. Furthermore, under the Buddha Che tseu kou yin wang (Simhadundubhisvararaja), the human lifespan is
100,000 years; under the Buddha Ming wcu <■ I lol u ija), it is 700 asamkhyeyakalpas; under the Buddha^
mi t'o (Amitabha), it lasts innumerable asamkhyeyakalpas. How can you say that the Buddhas do not
appear when the human lifespan is longer than 80,000 years?
[93b] [The disciples of Katyayanrputra]. - These teachings are in the Mahayanasutras, but in our system it
is not a question of the Buddhas of the ten directions (dasadigbuddha) but only of the one hundred
Buddhas of the past (atitabuddha) Sal yamuni, K'iu tch'enjo (Krakucchanda), etc., and the five hundred
Buddhas of the future (cindgciicihaddlici), Maitreya, etc. 50°
[The Mahayanists]. - In the Mahayanasutras, we speak of the Buddhas of the three times (tryadhvari) and
the ten directions (dasadis) for various reasons. In the universes (lokadhdtu) of the ten directions, all the
torments rage: old age (jara), sickness (vyddhi) and death (murunu), lust, (ruga), hatred (dvesa) and
delusion (moha), etc.; this is why the Buddhas must appear in these regions. It is said in a sutra: "If old age,
sickness, death and the afflictions (Mesa) did not exist, the Buddhas would not appear."-* ' Furthermore,
wherever there are many illnesses ( vyddhita), there should be many physicians (yaidyd).
In one of your Sravaka texts, the Tch'ang a han (DTrghagama), king P'i cha men (Vaisravana) addresses
the following stanza to the Buddha:
I bow before the Buddhas, past, future and present;
I take refuge (sarana) in the Buddha Sakyamuni.5"°
506 p or f^g num ber and names of the past and future Buddhas, refer to Malalasekera, II, p. 295 and Hohogirin, Butsu, p.
195-197.
5"' Cf. Ahguttara, V, p. 144 Tayo hlukklun dhannn, lok >i< Kanivijjeyyum Jati cajard ca marmanan ca.
- >0 ° The same passage of the Dfrghagama will be cited later at k. 9, p. 126a:
In the DTrghagama, a sutra says: There was a king of the asuras, gauardian of the northern region: along with many
hundreds of kotis of asuras, he went to the Buddha during the last watch of the night and, having prostrated to the
Buddha, he sat down at one side: emitting pure light, he illumined the entire Jctavana with a ureal light. Joining his palms
together, he praised the Buddha w ith these two stanzas:
Great hero, I lake refuge in you!
Buddha, the greatest among those who walk on two feet.
What you know by means of your wisdom-eye
The gods are unable to understand.
Whether they are past, future or present,
I bow before all the Buddhas.
Thus today taking refuge in the Buddha,
I also pay homage to the Buddhas of lite three times."
This passage is the beginning of the - itdndtikasutra of w iiich two versions exist. The first has a proof: 1) the Sanskrit texl
found in central Asia and published by H. Hoftmini i tra Leipzig, 1939, p. 33; 2) the
Chinese translation by Fa hien, enlitlcd P'i cha men t'ien sang king, T 1245, p. 217a; 3) the Tibetan translation of the
Bkah li \ I iiuO JA'i \ in pa dan { i (cf. Csoma-f'ccr, ] 7). In thi
version, the sutra takes place in Sravastl in the Jetavana, and Vaisravana addresses two stanzas to the Buddha. - The
second vci ion ha , prooi I I iIm I if i of tin Di h in' o a. Ill, p. 194; 2) the Tibetan translation of
(he Bhah hgyur. entitled Lean lo can gyi plio Ivan gi iiulo (cf Csoma-Feer, p. 288). In this second version, the siitra is
located at Rajagrha on Grdhrakutaparvata, and Vaisravana docs not address any stanzas to the Buddha.
I h ii ,i - riven here by the Mpps arc taken from the first version. To be convinced of this, a glance ai the Sanskrit text
published by Hoffmann, I.e., p. 33 is sufficient:
evam mayd siurai i / i vani sra\ Latham babhdse,
In this sutra of yours, it is said that the king bows down before the Buddhas of the past (atfta), the future
(andgata) and the present (pratyutpanna) and that he takes refuge in Buddha Sakyamuni. Thus we know
that, in the present, there Buddhas other [than Sakyamuni]. If the other Buddhas did not exist, why would
the king first bow down to the Buddhas of the three times, then afterwards take refuge specially (prthak) in
Sakyamuni? This king had not yet renounced all desire (avitaraga), but he was at the side of Sakyamuni
and, as a result of the affection and respect he had for him, he took refuge in him. As for the other
Buddhas, he bowed down before them.
4. Place of appearance of the Buddhas
[The disciples of KatyayanTputra]. - The Buddha said: "Two Buddhas do not appear simultaneously in the
same world {ekasmin lokadhdtu), just as two cakravartin kings do not appear simultaneously in the same
world. "5"" Therefore it is wrong that presently there are other Buddhas [than Sakyamuni].
nam'astu te mahavira....
tvam cahamsaranam gatahll
Instead of indicating the title of the sutra, the Mpps, citing this passage twice, refers only to the collection, the
' u \ama The Dlrghagama which it uses is not the Pali Dfghanikaya of the Thcravadin-Vibhajjavadins since the
) 11 til in i i , bund th ri d i not contain the stanzas spoken by Vaisravana in honor of the Buddha. Neither is it
ii l n i i i in I d into mi ibout 41 ^1 I i ddli i in d i th i im Tel (Mi md which
i in ill I I ,. lo the Dharmagupl (cf. the arguments ol itanabc, I'rzyluski nl > Idschmidt, Bruchstiickc hiuldh
Sutras, Lepzig, 1932, p. 229); indeed, this collection does not contain the Atdndtikasutra.
We have noticed several times already that the Mpps, citing 'the Vinaya' without any more precision, almost always is
refcrrin lo tin < h on liu (II 1 l, th rvasti Ji,i in Xl ma; ill n i r< inn ill i ih Dn lia m \ hi Ii i
being used here also belongs to the Sarvastivadin school. The Sarvastivadins had a collection of eighteen 'great surras' of
which the sixth., (he A t'clia na kien (in the Ts'in language: 'Sutra of the council of the demonic spirits') is none other Shan
tin Itanatik utra (cf. (Tin song liu, T 1435, k. 24, p. 174b; translation in S. Lc\ l ; citation pi '
houddhicpies, JA, May-June 1915, p. 419). Four of tin . gn it utras' ha- I >ecn found at Chotscho in central Asia, in a
mall mill >li ; il uti d. by I ill I uiuli [Jruclist I Leipzig, 19 tin i (in Via an
ili krapn .ih' Bimhasai mil ilv Maliasaina iitn I hi mlholog; i indisputabl ol • u lOtivadin provcnanci
(cf. Waldschmidt, p. 228).
^" A phrase which the Mpps w ill return to later, (k. 9, p. 125a) which is found in several surras.
a) In Pali, e.g., in Ahguttara, 1 ] / i i
thdnam vijjatti.
b) In Sanskrit, e.g., in Kosavyakhya, p. 338: Asthanain anavakaso vad apurracarainau dvau tatliagatau loka
utpadyayeydtdm .
c) In mixed Sanskrit, e.g.. in Ylahavastu, III. p. 199 asain .. loke utpadyensuh.
We know from the Kosavyakya thai asthanam kick io the presenl and anavakasah to the future. Thus it may be
translated: "It is impossible that in the present, in the future, two Tathagatas appear in the same world without one
preceding and the other following."
the phrase appears in many sutras, e.g., Digha, II, p. 225; III, p. I 14: .Ylajjhima, 111, p. 65; Ahguttara. I. p. 27: Vlilinda. p.
236; Mahavastu, III, p. 199; Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 5, p. 31a; k. 12, p. 79a; Tchong ahan, T 26, k. 47, p. 724a. - The great
[The Mahayanists]. - 1. No doubt the Buddha said that; but you misunderstand the meaning of his words.
The Buddha means that two Buddhas do not appear simultaneously in the same
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu (or trichiliomegachiliocosm); he does not say that in the universes of the
ten directions (dasadiglokadhdtu) there are not actually [several] Buddhas. Thus, two cakravartin kings do
not appear simultaneously in the same caturdvlpika (or universe of four continents), for these very
powerful beings have no rival in their domain. Consequently, in one caturdvlpaka there is one single
cakravartin only. In the same way, two Buddhas do not appear simultaneously in one single
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu. Here the sutra puts the Buddhas and the cakravartin kings on the same
level. If you believe that there are [other] cakravartins in the other caturdvipakas, why do you not believe
that there are [other] Buddhas in the other trisahasramahasahasralokadhatus?^"
2. Furthermore, one single Buddha cannot save all beings. If one single Buddha could save all beings, there
would be no need for other Buddhas and only one single Buddha would appear. But the qualities of the
Buddhas (buddhadharma), who save beings to be converted (vaineya), perish as soon as they arise
(jdtamdtrd nirudhyante) like the flame that is extinguished when the candle is used up; indeed, conditioned
dharmas (samskrtadharma) are transitory (anitya) and empty of self nature (svabhavashunya). Thus, in the
present, there must be yet other Buddhas.
511
[93c] 3. Finally, beings are numberless and suffering (duhkha) is immense. This is why there must be
magnanimous bodhisattvas and numberless Buddhas who appear in the world to save beings.
[The disciples of KatyayanTputra]. - It is said in the sutra that the Buddha appears from age to age after a
number of years as immense as the flower of the Ngeou fan p'o lo (Udumbara) tree which appears once at
regular times. ^12 if the ten directions were full of Buddhas, the Buddha would appear easily, he could
easily be found and we would not say that it is difficult to meet him.
s have tried lo interpret it: see. e.g.. Kosa, III, p. 198-201; Bodh. bhumi, p. 92; Madhyantavibhahga, p. 152; and
especially Samgraha, p. 332-333, 338.
510 The interpretation given here by the Mahayanists is lecoided in the Madh ntavibhanga, ] i i
cakravartinos ... apt caturdvlpaka evety apare. - Tr. : "The [sutra] says that two Tathagatas and two cakravartins do not
arise [simultaneously in the same world}. According to some, the world in question is a trichiliomegachiliocosm if it
concerns Tathagatas, but a universe-of-four-continents if it concerns the cakravartins. According to others, in both cases it
is a matte: of a univcrsc-of-four-conlinlcnls." The Kosavyakhya, p. 338, also mentions this two-fold explanation: "What
should be understood by 'this same world? By 'this same world' one should understand either one single caturdvlpaka or
one single trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu."
511 In several places (p. 272-273, 284, 328 329), the Samgraha shows how there must be one and many Buddhas al the
51 2 The post-canonical texts repeat ad nauseam thai the appearance of a Buddha is as rare as the appearance of a flower
on the Udumbara tree (Ficus glomerata) which bears fruit but does not have visible flowers: - Lalitavistara, p. 105:
tadyathd audumbarapuspam loke utpadyante.
Tr. "Just as the Udumbara flower very rarely appears in the world, in the same way very rarely, in the course of many
nayutas of kotis of kalpas, do the Buddha Bhagavats appear in the world." - SukhavatTvyuha, v. 2:
t i i lurbhavah Tr. "Just as, in the world, the appearance of the
[The Mahayanists]. - No! It is in one single mahasahasralokadhatu that the Buddha usually appears after an
immense number of years. It is not a question of the ten directions. Because sinners do not know how to
honor him and do not seek the Path (marga), we say that the Buddha appears from age to age after an
immense number of years. Moreover, as punishment for their sins (dpattipaka), these beings fall into the
evil destinies (durgati) where, for innumerable kalpas, they do not even hear the name of Buddha
pronounced and still less see one. Due to these people, the appearance of the Buddha is said to be rare.
[The disciples of Katyayanlputra]. - If there really are numerous Buddhas and bodhisattvas in the ten
directions, why do they not come to save all beings from sin (apatti) and suffering (duhkha)1
Udumbara flowers is very rare, in the same way the appearance of the Tathagatas who desire the interest, who desire the
good, who are full of compassion, is very rare." Saddharmapundarika, p. 39: tadyathapi nama udumbarapuspam ...
Iluiniiaa in kathayati Tr. "Just as the Udumbara flower appears only at certain times and in certain places, so are the
limes and places rare where the Tathagata leaches the Dharma." - Sutralamkara, Ir. Hubcr, p. 396: "The Buddha, is like lite
Udumbara flower wich is very hard to find." - The Mpps will return twice to this comparison at k. 9, p. 125c.
By glancing at these post canonical anil late works, many other examples of this comparison may be found. on the other
hand, it does not occur in She Pali suttas. Moreover, (lie Mpps is explicit: "It is said, //; the siitra. (hat the Buddha appeals
from age to age like the Udumbara flower." Having found nothing comparable in the Pali canon, I [Lamottc] have turned
my search towards the fragments of Sanskrit surras discovered in central Asia where the Sat i n idin influence was
dominant. Here (he comparison in question has been found in a fragment of the .Vlahaparinirvanasutra, published by L.
Idschmidt, in hi / \ I ichri hten v. d. gcsell. dcr Wissens. zu
Gottingen, Philol. Hist. Klasse, Band II, Nr. 3, 1939, p. 58 as note. In the Pali Mahaparinibbanasuttanta (DIgha, II, p. 155-
I 56), the last moments of the Buddha arc described in the following way: The Buddha asked the monks if they have any
doubts concerning the Buddha, the Dharma and (he Samgha; on Ananda's negative relply, he answered: Now, O monks, I
have just this to say: All that is composite will decay; work tirelessly. These were the last words of the Tathagata. - But
iiie fragment of the .Vlahaparinirvanasutra in Sanskrit is more detailed, [laving reported lite negative rcponsc of Ananda,
the text continues: arlu i\ uttai am ekante vivrtya .... rati < i c nd vded, Tr. "Then the
Bhaga\ at lifted his undergarment on one side and said to the monks: Look, O monks, at the body of the Tathagata. Look
well, O monks, at the body of the Tathagata. Why'? the tathagatas, saints, (he perfectly enlightened ones, are as rare!}
seen as an Udumbara flower. Well then, O monks, be tranquil ! L:\ cry-thing compounded is perishable. Those were the last
words of the tathagata.."
The Mpps is therefore quite right when it tells us that the comparison with She Udumbara flower occurs 'in a surra'. As E.
Waldschmidt comments, it also occurs in the Chinese versions of the Mahaparinirvanasutra:
T 1, k. 4, p. 26b: "The I ih i i a >pc at in the world from age to age like the Udumbara flower which appears once in an
T 6, k. 2, p. 188b: "Usually it is difficult to meet a Buddha. There is on earth an Udumbara tree w hich docs not flower but
which bears fruit; if it produces a flower, then there is a Buddha in the world."
T 5, k. 2, p. 172c: "In JambudvTpa there is a venerable king of the trees called Udumbara; it has fruits but no flowers.
When it has flowers, then there is a Buddha in the world."
Prcviousl} we have seen (hat the flower of the Udumbara that grew north of Lake Vlandakini blossomed at She same time
as the Buddha Sakyamuni and died at the same time he did.
[The Mahayanists]. - These beings [have accumulated] faults (dpatti) and very serious taints (mala) for
innumerable asamkhyeyakalpas. Although they have accrued all sorts of other merits (punya), they do not
possess the qualities (guna) required to see a Buddha. Thus they do not see any. Some stanzas say:
When the reward for merits is far off,
When sins (dpatti) are not erased,
For that time, one cannot see
The Bhadanta, the man endowed with power.
Among the arya bhadanta (i.e., the Buddhas)
Their intentions are unchangeable:
Out of loving kindness (maitri) and compassion (anukampd) for all men,
They want to save them at all times.
But it is necessary that the merits (punya ) of beings be ripe,
That their wisdom (prajna) and their faculties (indriya) be keen,
That they thus fulfill the conditions of salvation
In order they may then attain deliverance.
In the same way that the great naga king
Makes the rain fall in accordance with wishes,
So it is in accordance with his former actions, sins or merits
That each man is recompensed
[The disciples of Katyayanlputra]: [According to you], the Buddha is able to save men full of merits
(punya) and endowed with wisdom (prajna) but does not save men deprived of merits and wisdom. If that
is so, men full of merits and endowed with wisdom do not derive their salvation from the Buddha.
[The Mahayanists]: These merits and this wisdom do indeed derive their origin from the Buddha. If the
Buddha did not appear in the world, the bodhisattvas would teach as Path (mdrga) the ten good causes
(dasakusalaniddna),-'^ the four limitless ones (catvary apramdndniy^ and the various causes and
conditions (hetupratyaya) that assure the retribution of sins and merits (dpattipunyavipdka) in the course of
rebirths (punarbhava). If there were no Bodhisattva, this is the admonition found in all kinds of sutras:
"The person who practices this doctrine carries out meritorious actions."
■ >li The ten wholesome pnh ol i lion I rniiipu I wll be described below, k. 8, p. 120b.
^ 14 Loving kin h i / m] ion (km l, j (in l nd |iianim l l U' Ik ipl in S igraha
p. 52.
Furthermore, whatever the merits (punya) and the wisdom (prajna) of men, [94a] if the Buddha did not
appear in the world, men would receive their reward (vipaka) in this world but they would not be able to
find the Path (mdrga). [On the other hand], if the Buddha appears in this world, men find the Path and this
is a great benefit. Thus, although a person has eyes, he sees nothing if the sun (surya) does not rise; light is
necessary so that he can see something. However, he cannot say: "I have eyes; of what use are they to me?"
The Buddha has said: "Two causes, two conditions give rise to right vision: 1) hearing the Dharma from
another's mouth; 2) reflecting properly oneself. "^^ Thanks to these merits, a man can be assured of a
wholesome mind (kusalacitta), sharp faculties (tikmendriya) and wisdom (prajna) and thus reflect
correctly. This is why we know that men derive their salvation from the Buddha.
These are the various and numerous errors [which we, Mahayanists, discover among the disciples of
KatyayanTputra], but as we wish to give the teaching (upadesa) of the Prajnaparamita, we cannot expand
further on secondary subjects.
- )1 - ) Anguttara, I, p. 87: Dve 'me hhikkliave paccayd summaditthiya .... yoniso ca mansikdro. - Cited also in Kosa\ \ A \v ,,
p. 188 and Samgraha, p. 65. - The Ncttipakarana, p. 8, explains that the wisdom coming from meditatk n i >l i u
pannd) is the km ledge ( produced parato ca gi t t omanasikdrena.
CHAPTER IX: THE MAHASATTVAS
The Sutra says: Mahasattva. What is a mahasattva?^"
Answer. - 1 . Mahd means great, and sattva means being or bravery. The person who is able to accomplish
a great work without regressing or turning back in his bravery is called mahasattva.
2. Moreover, he is called mahOattva because he is the chief of many beings.
3. Furthermore, he is called mahaOattva because he feels great loving kindness (mahamaitri) amd great
compassion (mahakaruna) for many beings; he establishes them (avasthdpayati) in the Greater Vehicle, he
travels the great Path (mahamarga) and attains a very high place.
4. Furthermore, he is called mahasattva because he is endowed (samanvagata) with the marks of the Great
Man (malHipiiriisahiksana).
The characteristics (laksana) of the mahasattva are described in the Tsanfo kie (Buddhastotragatha):
only the Buddha is the unique man, the foremost,
Father and mother of the threefold world, the omniscient one,
Among all beings he has no peer,
Homage to the Bhagavat who is unequaled!
Common people practice loving kindness in their own personal interest.
They seek a reward by making gifts.
[94b]The Buddha, in his great loving kindness, has no such goal.
He is as beneficent towards his enemies as towards his friends.
5. Furthermore, he is called mahasattva because he must preach the Dharma and destroy the great wrong
views (mithyddrsti) and the afflictions (Mesa), such as great craving (mahatrsna), pride (abhimdna), great
attachment to the self (dtmasneha), etc., in all others as well as in himself.
6. Finally, like the great ocean (mahdsamudra), beings (sattva) are without beginning and without end
(apurvamadhyacarama). A skillful teacher of arithmetic (gananacarya) who would keep track for
numberless years would not reach the end of them. This is what the Buddha said to the bodhisattva Wou
tsin yi (Aksayamati): "If all the universes (lokadhdtu) of the ten directions to the ends of space (dkasa)
5l " 'Mahasattva' refers to the altruistic virtues of the Bodhisattva, whereas the word 'bodhisattva' indicates rather his
personal qualities. At least this is the mosl current interpretation: cf. Aloka. p. 22: hodhau sarvadharmasaktatayam
in! i iin, adi ill im i hipi ivo yi ini i mxI veil. ravaka api syur evam ity aha: mahasattva iti. maliatydm
pararthasampadi sattvam yesam te mahasattvah. mahasattvam canyatha 'pi tirthikasadhujanavat syad iti
bodhisattvagrahanam. ■■ The epithet 'mahasattva' is rendered in Tibetan as sans dpah clieii po "Great hero of mind", and
in Chinese as Ta che "Great hero", Ta tscln n;.> < ir Ta ycou ts 'in<> "Great bi in )lh i di limtions in Hobogirin,
Mahasatsu,p. 141-142.
formed a single body of water, and innumerable and incalculable beings came, each with a hair, and took
away one drop of it, there would still remain an incalculable number of beings. If by thus removing a drop
on the end of a hair they succeeded in completely emptying this great body of water, the number of beings
would still not be exhausted." This is why the number of beings is limitless (ananta), immense
(apramana), incalculable (asamkhyeya) and inconceivable (acintyd)?^' The [bodhisattva] wishes to save
them all, free them all from suffering and establish them all in the happiness of unconditioned safety
{asamskrtayoguksemusukhu). He is called mahasattva because he has made this great resolution to save
these numerous beings.
Thus, Ngeou cho na yeou p'o yi (Asa, the upasika) 518 sa j c j to me bodhisattva Siu ta na (Sudhana) in the
Pou k'o sseuyi king (Acintyasutra):^"
51 ' That the number of beings is infinite l is an old teaching. In h i i ! I n
p. 807-808, de La Vallcc Poussin has brought together a few references:
Kosa, III, p. 10: Even if no new being were to appear, even if innumerable Buddhas were to make innumerable beings
attain nirvana, the beings of the innum rabl n rscs \ ould n i i haustcd
.Ylahavastu, !, p. xxxiii: Bui, Kasyapa objects, if so many Buddhas exist and a single one leads an infinite number of
creatures to nirvana, soon they would lead all beings there. Katyayana answers by means of the immense number of
prthagjanas which exist following the statement of the Buddha.
Cheou tchang louen, T 1657, p. 505b: Each of lite Bhagavats who appear in the world lead an incalculable number of
beings to nirvana. Nevertheless, beings arc not exhausted because they are infinite, like space, 'this is the teaching of lite
bodhisattva Vasubandhu.
51° The name of this upasika, Asa 'Hope' in the original Sanskrit, is transliterated in a bizarre fashion in all the Chinese
translations. There is Ngeou cho na (85 and 11; 135 and 2; 163 and 4) in the Mpps, k. 4, p. 94bl4. - Hieou cho (9 and 4:
64 and 8) in T 278, k. 47, p.697c7, and in T 279, k. 63, p. 342c21-22. - Yi cho na (9 and 4; 135 and 2; 163 and 4) in T
293, k. 7, p. 693b21.
Sudhana was addressed by Sagarasvaja in the following words:
a. Gandavyuha, p. 99: gaccha kulaputrchaiva .... hodiusattvacaryayain siksitavyam. - Go, then, O son of noble family!
Hen: in the Dakhan there is a region called Samudravctadi w here there is a park called Samanatavyuha, east of the city of
Vlahaprabha: there dwells she Buddhist laywoman, Asa, the wile of prince Suprabha. Go and find her and ask her how the
bodhisattva should exert himself in die practice of the bodhisattva.
Instead of Samudi a ctadi Vlitra cj 'iuddh. Lit., p. 91, reads Samudravelati 'Shore of the Ocean'.
b. T 278, k. 47, p. 697c: Here in the Dekhan, there is a region called Hai tch'ao (85 and 7; 85 and 12: 'Flow of the
Ocean'), wh n ih re i i ill t ' illed ''< houan i imanta uha) it i ih i <lii( dv u] i i 1 i < ill d
Hieou did (9 and 8; Asa ?) lives. Go and find her and ask her, etc.
d. T 293, k. 7, p. 693b: Go south from here. You will come to the region of Hai tch'ao (85 and 7; 85 and 12; Flow of the
Oi n). It h i i u ii i ill d ) i na 'to ang (41 and 10; 85 and 11; 10 and 4): Mahaprabha). That city has a king
called Miao yuan kouang (38 and 4; 31 and 10; 10 and 4: Supraprabha). Last of this city there is a park called P'ou
tchouang j I mi ml i ; uh I hi king has a wife called Yi cho na (9 and 4; 135 and 2; 163 and 4: (Asa ?): she is an
upasika, she live in ilii f< n iiu! i igcd in die practices of a bodhisattva. Go (here and find lici and ask her. etc.
51" Acintyasutra, i.e., the Gandavyuhasutra, a section of the Avatamsaka. flic passage quoted here occurs: i) in the
Sanskrit text of the Gandavyuha, ed D. T. Suzuki-H. Idzumi, Kyoto, 1934-1936, p. 195-110; ii) in the version by
Buddhabhadra, T 278, k. 47, p. 698c25 sq.; iii) in the version by Sisananda, T 279, k. 64, p. 344b3 sq.; iv) in the version
"The bodhisattva-mahasattvas do not produce the thought of supreme perfect enlightenment to save just
one man alone (na khalv ekasamdhdranatayd bodhisattvdndm mahdsattvanam anuttardydm
samyaksambodiun: cittam utpadyate). Nor to save just two, three, etc., up to ten. Nor to save just 100 (po -
sata), 1,000 (ts'ien = sahasra), 10,000 (wan = prabheda), 100,000 (die wan = laksha), 1,000,000 (po wan =
atilaksa), 10,000,000 (yi = koti), 100,000,000 (che yi = madhya), 1,000,000,000 (po yi = ayuta),
10,000,000,000 (ts'ien yi = mahayuta), 100,000,000,000 (wan yi = nayuta)... [and so on, each term ten
times as great as the preceding, up to the 122nd term of the series 1, 10, 100, 1,000... called anabhilapya-
anabhilapya and equal to 1 followed by 121 zeros].
They do not produce the thought of bodhi just to save a number of beings equal to that of the atoms
(paramanu) contained in one country, or in two or three up to ten, or one hundred, a thousand, ten
thousand, one koti, one ayuta, one nayuta up to tiiuihliildpydnahhildpya countries.
They do not produce the thought of bodhi just to save a number of beings equal to that of the atoms
contained in JambudvTpa, or in Godanlya, Uttarakuru and Purvavbideha.
[95a] They do not produce the thought of bodhi just to save the number of beings equal to that of the
atoms contained in one sahasra-cudika-lokadhatu (small chiliocosm), or in one dvisahasra-madhyama-
lokadhatu (dichiliocosm, medium universe), or in one trisahasra-mahasaharsra-lokadhmatu
(trichiliomegachiliocosm), or in two, three, up to ten, a hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, one koti, one
ayuta, one nayuta and up to anabhildpydnabhildpya irisahasramahasahasralokadhatus.
They do not produce the thought of bodhi in order to serve and honor (pujopasthdnata) just one Buddha,
or a number of Buddhas equal to that of the number of atoms contained in one country, or even a number
of Buddhas equal to that of the atoms contained in an anabhilapyanabhilapya number of
trisahasramahmasahasralokadhatus.
They do not produce the thought of bodhi to purify just one single buddhafield
(ekabuddhaksctixipaiisodhana) or even a number of buddhaksetras equal to that of the number of atoms
contained in anabhilapyanabhilapya number of trisahasramahasahasralokadhatus.
They do not produce the thought of bodhi to assure just one single teaching of the Buddha
(ekatathagatasdsanasamdhdrand) or even a number of tathdgatasdsana equal to that of the atoms
contained in an anabhildpydnabhildpya number of tris....
They do not produce the thought of bodhi to prevent the cessation of one single lineage of Buddhas
(ekabuddhavamsachcdandvarana), or even that of a number of huddhavamsa equal to that of the atoms
contained in an anabhildpydnabhildpya number of tris....
They do not produce the thought of bodhi to know in detail just one single vow of Buddha
(ekabuddhapranidhdnavibhaktiparijhd), or even a number oi" huddhapranidhdna equal to that of the atoms
contained in an anabhildynabhilpya of tris....
of Prajna, T 293,, k. 8, p. 695c sq. The quotation of the Mpps docs not reproduce any of these four versions exactly. The
long lis! of numbers has been abridged in the three Chinese versions: that of the Sanskrit text does not correspond exact!}'
w ith the list fount! here. The Mpps thus uses a special version of the Gandavyuha w hich has not come down to us.
They do not produce the thought of bodhi to adorn one single buddhafield
(ekabuddhaksetiavyuhdvatarana), or even a number of buddhaksetra equal to that of the atoms contained
in an anabhildpydnahhildpya of tris....
They do not produce the thought of bodhi to know in detail one single Buddha assembly
(ekabuddhaparsanmantJahiviblHiktyavataraiHi), or even a number of buddhaparsanmandala equal to that
of the atoms contained in an anuhliildpvdiuihjildpya number of tris....
They do not produce the thought of bodhi to remember one single preaching of the Buddha
(ekafatlidgatadhanuacakrasanu/hdrana), or even a number of tathdgatadharmacakra s equal to that of the
atoms contained in an anahhildpydnahhildpya number of tris....
They do not produce the thought of bodhi to cognize (avataranay™ the thoughts of one single being
(ekasattvacitta), or the faculties of one single being (ekasattvendriya), or the succession of the cosmic
periods (kalpaparampara) in one single trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu.
They do not produce the thought of bodhi in order to destroy the afflictions of just one single being [95b]
(ekasattvaklesasamuccheda), or even the klesas of a number of beings equal to the atoms contained in an
anabhildpydnabhildpya number of trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu.
But here are the aspirations (pranidhdna) of the bodhisattva-mahasattvas. The bodhisattvas produce the
thought of bodhi and realize supreme perfect enlightenment (anuttarasamyaksambodhi) [for the following
ten purposes]:
1) in order to convert the beings of the ten directions (anavasesasarvasattvavinaydya),
2) in order to serve and honor all the Buddhas of the ten directions
(tnHivascsusarvtdiiicldlHiksctraparisoduntiyti),
3) in order to purify all the buddha fields of the ten directions
(ancivasc.sasarvabuddhakhctrapari.sodlHinciya),
4) In order to retain firmly all the teachings of the Buddhas of the ten directions
(anaYusesabiicldluisasanasamcllulranaya),
5) in order to know in detail all the buddha fields (sarvabudclhuksetruhhuktyavatandya),
6) in order to know in depth all the buddha assemblies {sarvabuddhaparsanmandaldvatarandya),
7) in order to know in detail the minds of all beings (sarvacittdvagdhanatdyai),
8) in order to cut through the afflictions of all beings (sarvasattvaklesasamuccheddya),
9) in order to know in depth the faculties of all beings (sarvasattvendritdvataranaidyai).
These headings are the main ones (pramukha); they summarize the hundred, thousand, ten thousand, ten
millions of asamkhyeya rules relating to the Path {mdrgadharmaparydya) which the bodhisattva must
.Vlonici Williams: uvutarunu = descending, translation.
know and penetrate. By means of this wisdom (prajnci) and knowledge (]nana) the bodhisattvas adorn all
thebuddha fields."
Asa [also] said: " O son of noble family (kulaputra), thus would I like to have a universe (lokadhdtu)
where all beings are completely pure (yisudda) and where all the afflictions (klesa) are cut through
(samucchinna)."
Sudhana asked: "What is deliverance (vimoksa)!"
Asa answered: "It is the banner of freedom- from-grief and of safety (a n i nadk\ ija) I know this
single gate of deliverance (ekavimoksamukha), but I am unable to understand these bodhisattvas; their
great mind is like the ocean for they are in possession of all the buddhadharmas (ete bodhisattvdh
sagarasamacittdh sarvahuddhadharmasampraiTcchanaiayd):, their mind is unshakeable like Mount
Sumcru (mei-ukulpdcalaciiicih); they are like the king of physicians for they are able to cure all [the
sicknesses] of the afflictions (bhaisajard/opaiiulh sarvaklcsavyddliipramoksanatyd); they are like the sun
for they are able to scatter all the shadows [of ignorance] (ddityakalpdh sarvdvidydndhdravidhamanatayd);
they are like the earth for they are able to support all beings (dhdranisamdh
sarvasattvdsrayapratisthdnabhutataya); they are like the wind for they can strengthen all beings
(mdrutasadrsdh sarvajagadarthakaranataya); they are like fire for they can burn away the afflictions of all
the heretics (tejokalpdh sarvatirthikaklesadahanatayd); they are like cloud for they can make the rain of
Dharma (meghopamd dharmavarsapravarsanataya) fall; they are like the moon for the rays of their merits
light up everything (candroptimdh punyarasmihliih scurdlokakaixinatayd): they are like Sakradevendra for
they protect all beings (sakropamdlj sarvajagaddraksdpratipaHiiatayd). The practices of the bodhisattvas
(bodhisattvacarya) are very profound (gambhira); how could I be know them all?"
The bodhisattvas are called mahasattva because they make the great vow (mahdpranidhdna), because they
want to do the great work and because they want to arrive at the great place.
Finally, in the Mahaprajnaparamitasutra, [in the chapter entitled] Mo ho sa to siang (Mahasattvalaksana),
"I the Buddha himself said that such and such characteristics are the characteristics of the mahasattvas;
and the great disciples such as Cho li fou (Sariputra), Sin p'ou I'i (Subhuli), Fan icon mi (Puma), trie, each
have spoken about this chapter, therefore it was necessary to give it fully here.
5 ^! This chapter dedicated to 'Characteristics of the Mahasattva' is part of the Pancavimsati. It is called
vagi ii i m ji n ' i text (ed. N. Dutt, p. 169-172); - Mo ho sa p'in (Mahasattvaparivarta) in
Moksala's version, T 221, chap. XV, k. 3, p. 19c-20a; - Mo ho sa p'in (M iii i iii i] rival i) in 1 harmaral a's \ersion, T
222, chap. XI, k. 5, p. 178-181; - Kin kangp'in (Vajraparivarta) in KumarajTva's version, T 223, chap. XIII, k. 4, p. 243b-
244a.
CHAPTER X: THE QUALITIES OF THE BODHISATTVAS
Text of the sutra commented on in this chapter (cf. Pancavimsati, p. 4; Satasahasrika, p. 4-5):
Bodhisattvaih sdrdham sarvair (1) dharaiuprtilihihtlluiili (2) saiudclliipratilahc/liaih sunyahl
nimittapranihitagocaiaih (3) samattikstintipratilabclluiir (4) asaiigacllidraiifpratilahclliair (5) puncdhhijnair
(6) ddeyavacanair (7) akusidair (8) apagatalclbluiycisciscittciir (9) niramisacllwrnuidesakair (10)
gambhiradharmaksdntipdiamgatair (11) vaisaradyapraptair (12) mdrakanuasaiuatikrdntaih (13)
karmavaranapi-atiprcisrcihclhaili (14) prcitTtyasamutpaniKiclliarmaiurdesakusalair
(15) ascinikhycycikalpciprcinidluincisiiscinuirabdhaih (16) smitamukhair purvdbhildpibhir (17)
malulparsanmaclhye vaisdraclyasamanvdgatair i IS) anantakalpakotitlluirmanirtlesanihsaranakusalaih.
He was accompanied by bodhisattvas who possessed the dharanis, who coursed in the concentrations of
emptiness, signlessness and wishlessness^ 22 , who possessed the equalities and the patiences, who had
acquired the unhindered dharanis, who possessed the five superknowledges, who had words worthy of
faith, who were without laziness, who had rejected covetousness and ambition, who preached the doctrine
with disinterest, who had crossed over to the other shore of the acceptance of the profound dharmas, who
had attained the fearlessnesses, who had gone beyond the works of Mara, who were freed of the action
obstacle, who were skilled in teaching dependent origination, who had formulated their vows for
incalculable periods; they spoke with smiling faces; in the great assembly, they were endowed with the
fearlessnesses; for innumerable kotis of kalpas, they were skilled in preaching the Dharma and in
surpassing.
1. DHARAMPRATILABDHA
[95c] Siitra: All these bodhisattvas possessed the dharanis, coursed in the concentrations of emptiness,
signlessness and wishlessness, possessed the equalities and the patiences. {Sarvair dharanipratilabdhaih
sunyatdnimittapianihitasamadhigocaraih ).
Sastra: Question. - Why does the sutra then praise the bodhisattva-mahasattvas by means of these three
points?
Answer. - 1 . In order to emphasize the real qualities (guna) of the bodhisattvas, the sutra must praise them.
It praises that in which one ought to have faith in order that one may believe in it. It praises the
bodhisattvas because all beings do not believe in their profound (gambhira) and pure (visuddha) qualities.
2. Furthermore, in the beginning the sutra mentioned the bodhisattva-mahasattvas because they possessed
the dharanis, the concentrations ( samadhi), the patiences (ksdntl) and the other qualities (guna).
• >l1 This is the usual translation for iipruniliita. .Vlonicr-Vvilliams gives for pranihita : 'directed towards, committed,
resolved, determined, fixed upon, intent upon, one who has his thoughts concentrated on one point', etc.
Question. - We understand the reason for the order followed here, but what is it that is called a dharanT?
What is a dharanT'.'
Answer. - 1. In the Ts'in language, dharanT means 'capable of holding' (dharand) or 'capable of preventing'
(vidhdrana).
a. 'Capable of holding': Joining all sorts of good dharmas (kusaladharma), dharani 'holds' them (dhdrayati)
so that they are not dispersed or lost."^ It is like a good vessel (bhdjana) filled with water from which the
water does not leak out.
b. 'Capable of preventing': Detesting the roots of evil (akusalamula), dharanT prevents them (yidhdrayati)
from arising. It prevents the committing of evil by those who would want to commit it. That is what is
called dharani.
This dharamis associated with mind u , a im m kta) or dissociated from mind (cittaviprayukta), impure
(sdsrava) or pure (andsrava), nonmaterial (drupya), invisible (anldursunu), not offering resistance
(apratigha); it is contained in one element (dhdtu), one basis of consciousness (dyatana) and one aggregate
(skandha), namely, dharmadhatu, dharmayatana and samskaraskandha."4
Nine knowledges (Jndna) cognize it [Note: it is outside the knowledge of destruction of the afflictions
(ksayajndna)]. one single consciousness (yijhdnd) is aware of it [Note: the mental consciousness
(nuinovijiidna)]. According to the Abhidharma, this is the definition of dharani.
2. Furthermore, the bodhisattva who possesses dharanT (smrtibala) is able to retain and not forget all the
teachings that he has heard (smtadharma) by the power of his memory,.
3. Furthermore, dharanT accompanies the bodhisattva always. Like a chronic fever, it never leaves him; like
a ghost, it always follows him. It is like the good and the bad disciplines (samvara).
[96a] 4. Furthermore, dharanT prevents the bodhisattva from falling into the two chasms of the earth. It is
like the kind father who rescues his son as he is about to fall into a ditch.
5. Finally, when the bodhisattva has the power of the dharams, neither king Mara, his family nor his
warriors can unsettle him, destroy or conquer him. He is like Mount Sumeru which the worldly wind
cannot shake.
Question. - How many types of dharanT are there?
Answer. - There are many types. 5
f. Lalitavisla rut Hum i i iyai samvartate.
524 For these categories, see Kosa, I, p. 30.
525 Among the various types of dharani, we may note:
a. Mahadharmadharani, Siddhi, p. 613-614.
h. Srula-, vibhajyajhana- and ghosapravesadharanis full) defined here and to which the Vlpps will return at k. 28. p. 268.
c. Dharma-, artha-. mantra- and ksantilabhadharanis in Bodh. bhumi. p. 272 273.
d. The twelve dharanis of the .Ylahavyutpatti, no. 747-758.
1) The first is called srutadharadhdranT. The person who possesses this dharam never forgets the words
and the teachings that he has heard with his ears.
2) There is also the vibhajyajndnadhdranT. The person who possesses it knows in detail the qualities of
beings, how tall they are or how short they are, how beautiful or how ugly they are. A stanza says:
Among elephants, horses and metals
Among wood, stones and garments,
Among men, women, and waters,
There are all kinds of differences.
Individuals [of the same species] bear the same name
But their values differ.
The person who possesses this dharanl
Can always distinguish them.
3) Finally there is the ghosap) avesadhdrani. The bodhisattva who possesses it hears all kinds of words and
neither rejoices nor is irritated by sounds. For kalpas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges
i gaiigcinciilh dluk >pamakalpa) all beings may slander him and abuse him, but he would feel no irritation.
Question. - The impurities (dsrava) are not destroyed (ksina) in the bodhisattva: how then can he withstand
this evil treatment for kalpas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges?
Answer. - 1) We have said that here it is a matter of the bodhisattva who has acquired this dharam [and not
of all bodhisattvas indiscriminately].
2) Furthermore, although he has not destroyed his impurities, the bodhisattva possesses great wisdom
(mahdjndna), keen faculties (tiksnendriya) and is able to be attentive (manasikdra). He chases away any
angry thought by saying to himself: "If my ear (srotendriya) did not perceive sounds at such a great
distance, to whom would these insult reach?"
3) Moreover, if he hears insults, he passes them by. Who would be irritated by what he does not
distinguish? It is the ordinary person (prthagjana) who is attached to the self and who develops hatred
(dvesa) by distinguishing 'yes' and 'no'.
4) Moreover, the person who knows that words perish as soon as they arise (jdtamdtrd nirudyante) and that
'before' and 'after' are not joined, feels no anger. He knows that dharmas have no inner guide; [under these
conditions] who insults, who is irritated?
The person who hears various words from different sides [considers] some as good and others as bad. But
if good and bad are indeterminate (aniyata), one does not get irritated when one is insulted. The person
who knows that words are indeterminate (i.e., neither good nor bad) feels neither anger nor joy. If his
friends insult him, he is not angry insulted though he may be; but if his enemies slander him, he feels
animosity. If he has to undergo wind or rain, he goes back into his house or takes his coat; if the ground is
thorny, he puts on his shoes; if it is very cold, [96b] he makes a fire; when it is hot, he looks for water. He
looks for a remedy (pratikara) for all these troubles without getting irritated about them. [The bodhisattva]
acts in the same way with regard to insults and nastiness. It is only by loving-kindness (maitri) and
compassion (karuna) that he puts an end to them; he never experiences anger.
5) Furthermore, the bodhisattva knows that all dharmas are non-arising (anutpannd), unceasing
(animddha) and empty of self-nature (svabhdvasunya). If anyone hates him, insults him, strikes or kills
him, he considers that as a dream (svapna), as a [magical] metamorphosis (nirmdna): "Who then gets
angry, who is insulting?"
6) Finally, if, during kalpas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges (gangdnadivalukopamakalpa), beings
praise him and offer him robes (civara), food (dhdra), flowers (puspa), perfumes (gandha) and necklaces
(keyura), the bodhisattva who has acquired this dharanl (read t'o lo ni instead oijen) feels no emotion, no
joy, no attachment.
Question. - Now we know all the reasons why the bodhisattva does not get angry [when he is insulted], but
we do not know why he feels no joy (mudita) when his qualities (guna) are praised.
Answer. - 1) The bodhisattva knows that all offerings and all tributes (satkara) are transitory (anitya). If
today there are reasons why people come to praise and honor him, tomorrow there will be others who will
expose him to hatred, blows and death. This is why he is not joyful [when he is praised].
2) Furthermore, the bodhisattva says to himself: "They come to praise and honor me because I have
qualities {guna) and wisdom (prajiid). It is my qualities and not my person that they praise. Why should I
be joyful?"
3) Furthermore, "If this person praises my activity (karitra) and my qualities (guna), it is out of desire for a
reward (phalavipdka) rather than out of admiration for me. Thus, when a man plants seed-grain, waters it
and cultivates it, the earth feels no joy."
4) "If someone honors me and I welcome him joyfully, my merit (punya) will be slight and his also will be
of little value." This is why he does not rejoice.
5) Finally, the bodhisattva considers all dharmas as a dream (svapna) or an echo (pratisrutka). He asks
himself: " Who is praising me? Who is rejoicing? I have not found deliverance (vimoksa) in the threefold
world (tridhdtuka); my impurities (asrava) have not been destroyed (ksina); I have not attained
Buddhahood. Why should I rejoice in obtaining praise? If anyone should rejoice, it is only the Buddha, the
unique man (eka pudgala), for all qualities (guna) are perfected (paripurna) in him." This is why the
bodhisattva feels no joy in receiving all sorts of praise, tribute or offerings.
These are the characteristics of the ghosapravesadhdram. There are yet other dharams:
Tsi mie t'o lo ni (santidharanl), Wou pien t'o lo ni (anantadharanl), Souei ti kouan t'o lo ni
(bhumyanupasyanadharanT), Wei to t'o lo ni (anubhavadharanT). Houa yen t'o lo ni
(padmavyuhadharan/), Yin tsing t'o lo ni (gosaparisuddhidharanf), Hiu k'ong tsang t'o lo ni
(gaganagarbhadharanf), Hai tsang t'o lo ni (sagaragarbhadharanf), Fen pie tchou fa ti t'o lo ni
(sarvadharmabhumiprabhedadharari!) Ming tsc/iou fa yi t'o lo ni (sarvadharmarthalokadharam)-^
In all (samastah), there are five hundred dharanis. If they were all described in detail, it would be endless.
That is why it is said that the bodhisattvas have acquired the dharanis (dhdranipratilabdhd).
2. SAMADHIGOCARA
The three concentrations (samddhi) are those of emptiness (sunyata), wishlessness (apranihita) and
signlessness (animitta)?^-'
1) Some say: Sunyata is seeing that the five aggregates (skandha) are not the self (anatman) and do not
belong to the self (anatmyd). - Apranihita is, within the sunyatusumudhi, not producing the three poisons
(trivisa, namely, passion, aggression and ignorance) in the future. ° - Animitta has for its object
(alambana) the dharma free of the following ten marks (dasanimittarahita): a) the five dusts (rajas,
namely, color, sound, smell, taste and touch); b) male and female; c) arising (utpadd), continuance (sthiti),
cessation (hhanga).
2) Others say: Sunyatdsamadhi is the concentration in which one knows that the true nature of all dharmas
(sarvadharmasatyalaksand) is absolutely empty (atyantasunya). - When one knows this emptiness, there is
apranidhana.
What is apranidhana? It is not considering dharmas to be empty (sunyd) or non-empty (asunyd), existent
(sat) or non-existent (asat), etc. The Buddha said in a stanza from the Fa kiu (Dharmapada):
When one considers existence, one is afraid;
When one considers non-existence, one is also afraid.
This is why one should not be attached to existence
52 ° Except foi th ind th / ited in thi I ha \ utpatti, no. 751 and 753, the n
the Sanskrit terms is conjectural.
527 The three samadhis are not always cited in the same order or defined in the same way:
i) The Pali sources ha > i inaya. Ill, p. 93: Digha, III, p. 219;
Samyutta, IV, p. 360; Milinda, p. 337. Definitions in AtthasalinI, p. 179 sq. - Same order in Kosa, VIII, p. 184.
ii ) (iiiuid anii nadi n /hi in most ol ilv in I ui inl » ii'ii >u 1 h in i han, 1
1 (no. 9), k. 8, p. 50b; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 16, p. 630b; P'i p'o cha. T 1545, k. 104, p. 538a; Sutralamkara, XVIII, 77,
ed. Levi, p. 148; Bodh. bhumi, p. 276. w hich has good definitions.
!ii ii/vat i 'i ', oni 1 n i that h H' cr i conditioned ( nisi t M not the self, does not belong to the self, that
H i mph i I without self n tin i \ i i l nil ii ill ., <lI im i l|>i i'i t i
one does not form either pranidhdna or apranidhana towards them or, in the words of the Mpps, one does not feel
p i ioi mi i ion (V/vi /) or i noi u ( /) lov iid ill m iy ; i ii th i insists of n >l pi idiu m ih tin i
poisons towards future conditioned phenomena. Cf. (he definition of Bodh. bhumi, p. 276 aj i t
ilia hodhisattvasya .... ityucyate.
Or to non-existence.
This is aparaniliitasaiudc/hi.
What is dnimittasamddhil All dharmas are free of marks (animitta). Not accepting them, not adhering to
them is dnimittasamddhi. A stanza says:
When words (vdda) are stopped
The functioning of the mind (cittapravrtti) also ceases.
This is non-arising (anutpdda), non-cessation (an i roc/ha)
The similarity with nirvana.
3) Furthermore, sunyata is the eighteen emptinesses (astadasasunyatd)^ - Apranihitasamddhi is not
searching for any kind of bhdva or existence. (Note: the five galis, upapattihhava, purvakdlabhava,
maranabhava, antaixlhhava and kaiinahhava: . cf. Kosa, III, p. 117). - Animiti " i uppi inu ill
the marks of the dharmas (sarvadharmanimitta) and not paying attention to them (amanasikcira).
Question. - There are dhyanas and attainments (samapatti) of all sorts. Why talk here only about these
three concentrations (samadhi)!
Answer. - In these three samadhis, the attentiveness (manasikdra) is close to nirvana; as a result, the mind
of the person is neither too high nor too low, but evened out (samd) and motionless (acala). This is not the
case in other states [of mind]. This is why we speak here only of these three samadhis. In the other
samapattis, sometimes it is desire (kdma) that predominates, sometimes pride (mdna), sometimes wrong
views (drsti); but in these three samadhis. it is the absolute (paramdrtha), the true reality (bhutdrtha), the
ability to attain the gates of nirvana. This is why, among all the dhyanas and samapattis, these three
emptinesses are the three gates of deliverance (vimoksamukha) and are also called the three samadhis, for
these three samadhis are the true samadhi. The other samapattis also have the name 'samapatti'. Moreover,
except for the four principal dhyanas (mauladhydna), the concentrations from the andgamya up to the
bhavdgra [97a] are called samapatti and also samadhi, but not dhyana. As for the four dhyanas, they are
called samapatti or also dhyana or also samadhi. The other concentrations as well are called samapatti or
also samadhi: for example, the four apramdnas, the four drupyasamdpattis, the four pratisamvids, the six
abhijnds, the eight vimoksas, the eight abhibhvdyatanas, the nine ainipiirvascinuipattis, the ten
krtsiHiytitaiuis, and the other saindpattidluirnuis,.
Some say that there are twenty-three kinds of samadhi; others say sixty-five, still others say five hundred.
But as the Mahay ana is great, there are innumerable samadhis, such as:
Pienfa sing tchouang yen san mei, Neng tchao yi ts'ie san chefa to san mei, Poufenpie tche kouanfa sing
ti san mei, Jou wou tifofa san mei, Jou hiu k'ong wou ti woupien tchao san mei, Jou lai li hung kouan san
mei. Fo wou wei tchouang yen li p'in chen sun mei. Fa sing men siitan tsang san mei.
-* 2 " List and definition of the 18 sunyatas in Pancavimsati, cd. N. Dutt, p. 24, 195-198; commentary in Mpps, k. 31, p.
285b-296b.
Yi ts'ic die kiai won ngai tclioiuing yen pien yue san mei, Pien tclioiuing yen fa yun kouang san mei.
The bodhisattva acquires innumerable samadhis of this kind.
Furthermore, in the Prajnaparamita, in the Mo ho yen yi chapter (Mahayanartha)"0 the 108 samadhis are
enumerated as a whole (samasatah: the first is the Hiu k'ong pou tche pou jan san mei
(Suramgamasamadhi) and the last is the Hiu k'ong pou tche pou jan san mei
(Akasasahgavimuktinirupalepasamadhi). If they were to be enumerated in detail, there are innumerable
samadhis. This is why the sutra says that the bodhisattvas have acquired the concentrations
(samadhipratilabdha) and course in emptiness, wishlessness and signlessness
(sunyataprani/iitanimittagoeara).
Question. - The surra says first of all that the bodhisattvas have obtained the concentrations (samadhi-
pratilabdha); why does it then say that they course in emptiness, wishlessness and signlessness
(sunyatapranihitaniinittagocara)! [Is that not a tautology?]
Answer. - First the sutra speaks about samadhi but says nothing about its characteristics. Now it wants to
speak about its characteristics and it enumerates emptiness, wishlessness and signlessness. When someone
courses in emptiness, wishlessness and signlessness, it can be said that they have acquired the true
samadhis (bhutalaksanasamadhi). Some stanzas say:
He who observes the purity of the precepts ( sUavisuddhi)
Is called a true bhiksu.
He who contemplates emptiness (simyata)
Has truly obtained the samadhis.
He who demonstrates zeal (viryd)
Is called a true devotee.
He who has attained nirvana
Is called truly blessed.
3. SAMATAKSANTIPRATILABDHA
-^" This chapter, dedicated to the Meaning of the Mahayana and where the 108 samadhis are enumerated, is part of the
Pari i imi in in ni'il J li ' / il In inapari irta n lok ila \cision, T 221, chap. XIX, k. 4, p. 22c-24c;
- San mei p'in (Samadhiparivarta) in Dharmaraksa's version T 222, chap. XVI, k. 6, p. 188c-193a; - Wen tcli'eng
(Yanapariprccha) in KumarajTva's version, T 223, XVIII, k. 5, p. 250a-253b. - A Sanskrit list of the 108 samadhis occurs
in the Pancavimsati,. ed. N. Dutt, p. 142-144; Mahavyutpatti, no. 506-623.
The bodhisattvas have acquired the equalities (santata)"^ and the patiences (ksdnti).
Question. - What are the equalities and what are the patiences?
Answer. - There are two kinds of equalities (samata): equality toward beings (sattvasamata) and equality
toward dharmas (dharmas amata)."^ There are also two types of patiences (ksdnti), patience towards
beings (sattvaksanti) and patience towards dharmas (dharmaksdnti).
1) What is sattvasamata! This is to share one's thoughts (citta), memories (smrti), affection (anunaya) and
benefits (arthakriyd) equally with all beings.
Question. - By the power of loving-kindness (maitri) and compassion (karuna) one grants an equal part in
one's memories to all beings, but one cannot consider all in the same way. Why?
[97b] The bodhisattva follows the path of truth (satyamarga), is free of error (viparyasa) and is in accord
with the nature of phenomena (dharmalaksana). How could he consider the good person and the evil
person, the great man and the small man, a human and an animal (tiryanc), as identical (eka) and equal
(sama)l In the evil person there is really an evil nature (akusalalaksana); in the good person there is truly a
good nature (kusalalaksana); the same for the great man and the small man. The specific nature of the cow
(golaksana) occurs in the cow and that of the horse (asvalaksana) occurs in the horse. The specific nature
of the cow does not occur in the horse and that of the horse does not occur in the cow, for the horse is not
the cow. Each being has its own specific nature. Would not the bodhisattva be making a mistake in
considering all as identical and equal?
Answer. - If the good nature and the evil nature truly existed, the bodhisattva would be making a mistake
[in confusing the good person and the evil person], for he would be misconstruing the nature of dharmas
(dharmalaksana). But phenomena are non-real: the good nature is not real, the evil nature is neither many
nor rare. That which is not a human is not an animal. [Among phenomena] there is neither identity (ekatva)
nor difference (prthaktva). This is why your objection is not valid. Some stanzas define the nature of
dharmas as follows:
Non-arisen (anutpanna), non-destroyed (aniruddha),
Unceasing (anucchinna >. non-eternal (asasvata),
Neither identical (eka) nor different (anya),
Without coming or going,
Dharmas resulting from causes (pratityasamutpanna)
Escape from all vain prolixity (prapahcd).
The Buddha is able to define them;
1 For the equalities, see Hobogirin, Byfidfi, p. 270-276.
2 Sattvasamata and dliannasamata are well described in Bodh, bhumi, p. 286: hodhisuttvo 'inikampasahagater,
itasa sarvasattvesu samacitto viharati.
I pay homage to him.
Furthermore, in regard to beings, [the bodhisattva] is not attached (ndbhinivisate) to a nature (laksana) of
any kind of nature; beings are empty of characteristics (laksanasunya); from this point of view, they are
identical (eka), equal (sama), without difference (ananya). Seeing this is sattvasamutti. The person who
maintains an unfettered equality of mind (cittasamatd) toward them enters directly into the absence of
regression (avinivartana); he is called sci li , '< • a The bodhisattva who has acquired the
equalities and the patiences experiences no hatred or anger toward beings. He loves them like a loving
mother loves her son. A stanza says:
To consider sounds as echoes (pratisrutka)
And bodily actions as reflections (pratibimba);
The person who sees things thus,
How could he not be patient?
This is what is called sattvasamatdksdnti.
2) What is dharmasamatdksdntfl [The bodhisattva] is established in the doctrine of non-duality
(advayadharmaparydya) and the doctrine of the true nature (satya/aksaijaclhaniuiparydya) in respect to all
dharmas, good (kusala) or bad (akusala), impure (sdsrava) or pure (andsrava), conditioned (samskrta) or
unconditioned (asamskrta), etc. Then when he has penetrated deeply into the true nature of dharmas
(dharmanam satyalaksanam), his patience of mind (cittaksdnti) enters directly into the elimination of
controversy (nirdvandva) and the absence of obstacles (andvarana). This is what is called
dluirmasamatdksdnti. A stanza says:
Dharmas are non-arisen (anutpanna) and non-destroyed (aniruddha),
Neither unborn nor non-destroyed,
Both non-arisen and non-destroyed, neither non-arisen nor non-destroyed,
Both neither non-arisen nor non-destroyed, nor arisen nor destroyed.
[97c] Those who have acquired deliverance ( vimoksapratilabdhd) [Note: deliverance is the suppression of
wrong views] reject all vain prolixity (prapancd). When the path of discourse (vddamdrga) is suppressed
(samucchinna), one penetrates deeply into the Buddha's Dharma. The mind is penetrating, free of obstacles
(andvarana), immoveable (acala) and non-regressing (avinivartana). This is what is called
anutpaii ka r dha majk idnti. This is why it is said that the bodhisattvas are sunuituksuntiprcitiluhdlui.
4. ASANGADHARANIPRATILABDHA
Sutra: These bodhisattvas have obtained the dharanl without obstacles (asangaclhdixinFpratilahcIha).
Sastra: Question - The sutra has already said that the bodhisattvas have obtained the dharanis
(dharanipratilabdha); why does it repeat here that they have obtained the dharanl without obstacles
{asangadhdrani)!
Answer. - 1) Because the asangadhdrani \% very important. Just as the samadhi called 'King of Samadhi' is
the most important of all the samadhis in the way that a king is relative to his subjects; just as the
'Deliverance without Obstacles' (asahgavimoksa) [Note: this is the deliverance acquired when one reaches
Buddhahood] is the most important of all the vimoksas, so the asangadhdrani is superior to all the
dharanls.
2) Furthermore, the sutra says first that the bodhisattvas have acquired the dharams, but we do not know
what kind of dharanT. There are small dharanls such as those obtained by the cakravartin kings, the rsis,
etc.: for example, the srutadharadharanl, the sattvaprabhedadharanl, the namahsaranaparityagadharanl.
Other people can likewise possess the lesser dharams of this kind. But this asahgadharanT cannot be
obtained by heretics (tirthika), sravakas, pratyekabuddhas and [even] the beginning bodhisattvas
(adikarmikabodhisattva). only the bodhisattvas full of immense merit (apramdnapunya), wisdom (prajna)
and great power (mahdbala) are able to possess it. That is why it is spoken of separately here.
3) Finally, these bodhisattvas who have assured their own interest {anuprdptasvakdrtha) desire only to
benefit beings, preach the Dharma to them and convert them ceaselessly. They use this asangadhdrani 'as
basis. This is why the bodhisattvas always practice the asangadhdrani.
5. PANCABHIJNA
Sutra: These bodhisattvas possessed all the five superknowledges (sarvaih pancabhijnaih).
Sastra: The five abhijiids are: i) magical power (rddhi), ii) the divine eye (divyacaksus), iii) the divine ear
(divyasrotra), iv) knowledge of others' minds (paracittajnana); v) memory of former lifetimes
(piirvan i vasanus mrti) . 5 -> ->
A. What is rddhi or magical power?"4
1) There are four kinds of gamana or movement:"5 /) to go by flying like a bird (yatha sakunih paksi)
without encountering any obstacles (avarana);"® //) to change distance into proximity
533 The sources for these abhijnas are numerous. See Rhys Davids-Stede, s.v. Abhinna; P'i p'o cha, T 1545.p. 727b;
ICosa, VII. p. 97-126: .Ylahavyutpatti, np. 202-209: Dharmasamgraha, ch. XX: I'ancavimsati. 83-8S: Dasabhiimika. p. 34-
37; Madh. avatara, p. 56 (tr. Lav., in Museon, 1907, p. 301); Siksasamuccaya, p. 243; Pafljika, p. 428; Sutralamkara, ed.
Levi, VII, 1;XXI, 48; Bodh. bhumi, p. 58; Uttaratantra, p. 148. 180, 199; A p'i ta mo tsi louen, T 1605, k. 7, p. 691b; Ap'i
ta mo tsa tsi louen, T 1606, k. 14, p. 759c. - Among the works, we may mention: P. Demieville, La memoire des
existences anterieures, BEFEO, XXVII, 1927, p. 283-298; L. de La Vallee Poussin, Le Bouddha et le Abhijnd, 1931, p.
[ I vil i i i / i X ( ' ' / a i i 'iii i Uppsala, 19
534 The main source is the Sutra of the Rddhyabhijna, the Pali text of which is in DIgha, I, p. 78; Majjhima, I, p. 34;
Ahguttara, III, p. 280: and the Sanskrit text in I'ancavimsati, p. 83: ICosavyakhya, p. 654: Ylahavyutpatti, no, 21 1 230.
(durasyasannikarana) and thus to arrive without going; 5 -' ' Hi) diving and emerging
(nimajjanaiinmajjana); iv) moving in one moment (ckciksancigamana).°
2) Nirmana or creation consists of making small what is large, making large what [98a] is small,
multiplying what is singular and creating all kinds of objects (dravya). The creations of heretics (tirthika)
do not last longer than seven days whereas the mastery of creation (nirmdnavasitd) of the Buddha and his
disciples has unlimited duration.
3) The dryarddhi or noble magical power consists of purifying unpleasant and impure substances
(apriydvisuddhavastu) constituting the six classes of outer objects (bdhydyatana) by means of a glance:
color, sound, etc., or also making pleasant and pure substances (priyavisuddhavastu) impure. only the
Buddha has this dryarddhi? 3 '
Rddhyabhijna is the result of the development (bhdvand) of the four bases of miraculous power
(rddhipada)?^ Having a material object (rupdlambana), rddhipdda and abhijhd are produced
successively and cannot be acquired simultaneously.
B. Abhijna of the divyacaksus or divine eye. A pure form (rupaprasdda) derived from the four great
elements (caturmuhuhhiitahluiutiku) that occurs in the eye is called divyacaksus. It is able to see beings
(sattva) and substances (dravya) that occur in the six destinies (sadgati) of its own level and of lower
levels. The divine eye is never incapable of distinguishing between a nearby (samnikrsta) and a distant
(viprakrsta) form (rfipa). between a coarse (stluila) and a subtle (suksma) form.
There are two kinds of divyacaksus, the one that comes from retribution (vipukuluhdhu) and the one that
comes from practice (bhdvanlabdha). In so far as it makes up part of the five abhijnas, the divyacakusus
comes from practice and not from retribution. Why? Because it is acquired by continual attentiveness
(satatamanasikara) to all types of lights (aloka). Furthermore, some say that the bodhisattvas who have
"5 The Kosa knows of only three movements: movement of transport, movement of adhimoksa, rapid rr
5 ^" See explanations of Visuddhimagga, p. 396.
-'-' ' This is done by the power of resolve (adhimoksa). - Patisambhidha, II, p. 209, cited in Visuddhimagga, p. 401: Sace
lluina ii iii ii' i ii i iti: Transl.: II ihi m i cian who has
acquired mastery of mind wants to go to the world of Brahma, he docs ad h th il vhat i lai away becomes close
at hand: "May it be close at hand" and it becomes close.
5i ° This displacement rapid as thought (manojava) belongs to the Buddha; cf. Kosa, VII, p. 113.
1 ' Digha, 111, p. 1 1 in [ready di tin uished iddl istn i , hii < n i Iv ' I, >l mil i 1< Ii >m / ;
asasava anupadiiika "tiriyti" which Is equanimity (upekkiia). This distinction is repeated in Kosa, VI, p. 285.
540 Kosa, VII, p. 123, develops this further: Because of a preparatory practice (prayoga) consisting of meditation on light
and sound (aloka, sahda) ■ She practitioner being supported by (he dhyanas in the practitioner's eye and car (which are of
kamadhatu) a 'purr ruiui (rupaprasada, cf. Kosa, I, p. 13), a subtle and excellent substance derived from the great
I hi in i i i in n 1 1 li hi Ii I I of the dhy ana that had en used point ol ipporl. This nipa conslilul
eye and ear; it sees and hears: ii constitutes what is called the divine eye, the divine ear. Arising as a result of a substance
(rupa) of the level of the dhyanas, the organs are divine in the proper sense of the word,
269
acquired acquiescence in the doctrine of non-arising {anutpattikadharmaksdnti) are not limited to the six
destinies (sadgati). It is solely in order to convert beings by virtue of their dharmakaya that they appear in
the ten directions (dasadis). In the bodhisattvas of the threefold world (tridhdtuka) who have not yet
attained the dharmakaya, the divyacakusus results sometimes from practice and sometimes from
retribution.
Question. - The qualities (guna) of the bodhisattvas surpass those of the arhats and the
pratyekabuddhas. Why praise their divine eye of lesser quality which is shared with ordinary people
(prthagjana) and not praise their eye of wisdom (prajndcaksus), their Dharma eye (dharmacaksus) or their
Buddha eye (buddhacaksus)!^^
Answer. -There are three kinds of gods (deva): i) the metaphorical gods (sammatideva), ii) the gods by
birth (upapattideva), iii) the pure gods (visuddhideva).^ The cakravartin kings and other maharajas are
called sammatideva. The gods of the caturmaharajakayika heaven up to those of the bhavagra are called
upapattideva. The Buddhas, the dharmakaya bodhisattvas, the pratyekabuddhas and the arhats are called
visuddhideva. These obtain the divine eye by practice and this is called the divyacaksurabhijfid. This eye of
the Buddhas, the dharmakaya bodhisattvas and the visuddhidevas, cannot be acquired by ordinary people
(prthagjana) who lack the five abhijnas, nor can it be acquired by the sravakas and the pratyekabuddhas.
Why? The lesser arhats see a sahasralokadhatu if their intellect is small, a dvisahasralokadhatu if their
intellect is great. The higher arhats see a dvisahasralokadhatu if their intellect is small, a trisahasraloka-
dhatu of their intellect is great. It is the same for the pratyekabuddhas. ^3 - Such is the
divyacaksuixihliijiul.
C. What is the abhijha of the divyasrotra, or the divine ear? It is a subtle form (rupaprasdda) derived from
the four great material elements (caturmahdbhutabhautika) which occurs in the ear and which allows all
the [98b] sounds (sabda) and words of the gods, men and beings in the three unfortunate destinies [the
hells, the pretas and animals] to be heard. How is the divyasrotrabhijna obtained? It is obtained by practice
(bhavana), by continually reflecting on all kinds of sounds. Such is the divyasrotrabhijna.
D. What is the abhijha of the pun anh dsdnusmrti, or memory of previous lifetimes? It is the faculty of
going back in memory over the course of days, months and years as far as the period of the gestation in the
541 These 'eyes' will he defined helow, k. 7, p. 1 12h.
-^ These three types of gods to which the Mpps will return later, k. 7, p. 1 12b, have already been mentioned in the
inonii il Ii i I'"' ullanidd i ,> ' ibhariga, p i < \ i \ , i uldhideva
arahanto vuccanti.
Later, at k. 22, p. 227c, the Mpps will explain that there are four kinds of gods. "The nominal gods, the gods by birth, the
gods of purity and the gods of native purity. The nominal gods are, fot ex mpl fch king who i i ill d l i< n tseu (Son of
god, or devaputra)." According to Levi, Devaputra, JA, Jan-Mar. 1934, p. 11, this is an allusion to the Kusana dynasty
whose princes ICaniska, Huviska, Vasudcva. have always taken the iiile of devaputra. this fact is worth remembering in
the matter of dating the Mpps.
- )4 -' Kosa, VII, p. 124. The mahasravakas, wishing to see by the divine eye, put forth a great effort, see a dvisahasra
I i I'hc pratyckabu ilh i ikadhatu. the Bn \Hi i bha il (he
asamkhya lokadhatu: he sees whatever he wishes.
womb and, finally, past existences. ^ one lifetime, ten lifetimes, a hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, a
koti of lifetimes. The great arhats and pratyekabuddhas can go back over 80,000 great kalpas. The great
bodhisattvas and the Buddhas know an unlimited (aparmana) number of kalpas. Such is the
purraiiircisaiuismrtyahliijihl.
E. What is the abhijna of paracittajnana or knowledge of others' minds? It is knowing if another's mind
(paracitta) is stained (samala) or stainless (vimala). The practitioner first considers [his own mind] in its
arising (utpdda), its duration (sthiti) and its destruction (bhahga). By ceaselessly reflecting on it
(satatamanasikara) he succeeds in discerning in others the signs (nimitta) of joy (mudita), of hatred
(dvesa) and of fear (bhaya, visada). Having seen these signs, then he knows the mind.545. This is the first
gate of the knowledge of others' minds.
We have finished the explanation of the five abhijnas.
6. ADEYAVACANA
Sutra: Their words are worthy of faith (adeyavacanaih).®
Sdstra: The devas, manusyas, nagas, asuras and all great men accord faith to their speech and this is the
reward (vipdka) for their language that is free of frivolity (asambhinnapraldpd). The punishment for those
of frivolous speech^' is that nobody believes them even if they speak the truth. Some stanzas say:
They fall among the pretas,
Flames shoot out of their mouth.
on all sides, they utter loud cries:
This is the punishment for their sins of speech.
They have heard much (bahusruta) and seen much (bahudrsta).
544 Kosa, VII, p. 103: the practitioner who wishes to remember previous lifetimes begins by seizing the nat
udgi va = cittap ' irain pariccliul) i of ill mind hich i iboul to perish: from this mind, h o< back by considering
(manasikurvan) the states which immediately succeed one another in the present existence back to the mind at
conception (pratisamdhicittd). When he reaches a moment of mind of the intermedial existence (ai hhava) 111
abijna is realized.
545 Kosa, VII, p. 102: The practitioner who wishes to know others' minds first considers, in his own series, the nature
{nimitta) of the body and of the mind: "Such is my body, such is my mind." When he has considered his own body and
his own mind envi i inj in the same way the series of anothei . he lakes into account the nature of the body and the mind
of another: in (his way he knows the mind of another and the abhijna arises. When the abhijna is realized, (he practitioner
no longer considers the body, the rupa; he knows the mind directly.
"'" Adeyavacaiuita w as one (if the qualities of Anathapindika; cf. Vinaya, II, p. 158. - This virtue is described in Bodh.
bhumi, p. 28-29: vat puijalj sraddhcyo hluivati pratyayitah .... iyani ueyate ddeyavacanatd.
54 ' Frivolous speech (s<// ' v una, , , li on. of tin ten il i il il nm m uli , . cf below, k. 8, p. 120b.
They preach the Dharma in the great assemblies,
But as a result of their lack of good faith (chancla)
Nobody believes them.
The person who desires vast renown (ming wen = yasas)
And wishes to believed by people
Should therefore show straightforwardness
And avoid frivolous discourse (sambhinnapraldpa).
7. AKUSIDA
Sutra: They were without laziness (akusFclaih).
Sastra: In householders (grhastha), laziness (kausidya) ruins wealth (dhana) and merits (punya); among
monastics (pravrajita), it ruins celestial happiness (svargasukha) and the bliss of nirvana (nirvanasukha);
in both, one's good name (yasas) is lost. Even great culprits and great thieves avoid laziness. A stanza says:
Laziness ruins good minds.
The shadows of ignorance replace the light of wisdom.
All good resolutions disappear.
Great works also are doomed to failure.
This is why the bodhisattvas are said to be akusida.
8. APAGATALABHAYASASCITTA
Sutra: Apagatalahha isast " i h they ha* rcnouni d u ed (Id ha i) and ambition (yasascitta). ^8
Sastra: Greed is like a thief; it destroys the root of the qualities (gunamula). Just as a heavy frost destroys
the five grains, so greed and ambition destroy the young shoots (bija) of the qualities (guna) and prevent
them from prospering. The Buddha made the following comparison (upamdna): "Just as a horse-hair rope
54 ° There are eight lokadharmas with which a person may be especially preoccupied and which lead to his ruin: gain
(labha) and glory (yasas) are among them. Cf. DIgha, III, p. 260; Ahguttara, IV, p. 156 sq.; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 40,
p. 764b. The iin.ni il riplu man\ lim not tin dan rs < gain n I In-n >■ {tab ikkara i V'in ya, II, p. 196;
Ittivuttaka, p. 73), of gain, honoi and fam (lab ikki < cf. .VI ijjhim i p l l > imyutta, II, p. 227, 237;
Anguttara, II, p. 73; II, p. 343, 377).
(valarajju) binds a man, tears his skin (chavi) and breaks his bones (asthi), so the [98c] greedy man
destroys the root of the qualities."^" Some stanzas say:
Those who enter into a forest of sandalwood (candand)
Gather up only leaves (parna);
Or who go into the seven-jewel mountain (saptaratnagiri)
Collect only crystals (sphatika).
[In the same way], some men having entered into the Buddha's Dharma
Do not seek the bliss of nirvana
But turn back to the pursuit of wealth and honors:
They are cheating themselves!
This is why the disciple of the Buddha
Who wants to taste the taste of ambrosia (amrtarasa),
Must abandon this blend of poison
And zealously seek the bliss of nirvana.
Just as a heavy frost
Destroys the five cereals,
So the man attached to wealth and pleasures
Destroys respect (hri) and discipline (dhutd).
From now on in this life, he burns up the roots of good;
In the next life, he falls into hell.
Like Devadatta
549 jjjj s comparison occurs in Samyutta, II, p. 328, in the Rajjusutta which, error excepted, does not appear in the
Chinese Tripital i vyathapi hi < hiIciyci pu > da < u'ni chetva atthimi liaa ittl If a man
wraps a strong horse-hair rope around his leg lightly and saws it back and forth, the rope will cut through his skin, flesh,
i i i i n I i i u i\el\ and will not stop until it has pierced the marrow; in the same way, gain, honors and
glory successively cut through the skin, etc."
This comparison is repeated in the Ta tchouang yen louen king, T 201 (no, 41), k. 7, p. 293a, but E. Huher, in his
translation of the Sutralamkara, has understood it wrongly: "Greed is more terrible than an enemy ... Such is the anguish
of the rough rope (as note: We do not know what this anguish consists of) that l< i tin 1 in d Iro; m ileshandbonc
and does not stop before having penetrated the marrow." Mao cheng is not a "rough rope" but a horse-hair rope
(vaUirajju) with which limbs are sawed off.
Who was lost out of greed. 3U
This is why the bodhisattvas are said to be apagataldbhayasaslu itta .
9. NIRAMISADHARMADESAKA
Sutra: They preached the Dharma disinterestedly (nirdmisadharmadesakaih).
Sastra: It is out of loving-kindness (inaitri) and compassion (karuna) that they preach the Dharma to
beings, without greed for robes (cFvara), food (dhdra), fame (rasas) or power (prabhava). If they preach
the Dharma, it is with great loving-kindness and great compassion because their minds (citta) are pure
(visuddha) and because they have attained acquiescence in the doctrine of the non-arising of phenomena
{anutpattikadharmaksdnti). Some stanzas say:
The learned preacher, rational, skillful in speech,
Who preaches the Dharma well and stimulates people's spirits
But who transgresses against the doctrine and commits wrongdoings
Is like a cloud that thunders but cannot produce any rain.
The accomplished person, learned and wise,
But reticent, clumsy in speech and not eloquent,
Cannot reveal the precious treasure of the doctrine:
He is like a small shower without thunder.
The undisciplined person without wisdom
Who preaches badly and lacks good behavior
Is an evil teacher without shame:
He is like a little cloud with no thunder and no rain.
The learned person, wise and eloquent,
Who preaches the Dharma skillfully and stimulates people's spirits,
Who observes the doctrine fearlessly with an honest heart,
55U Devadatla i: ; llic archetype of those destroyed by their greed and selfish preoccupations. See Ahguttara, IV, p. 160:
luihi i haiiim, ihhuto .... etc.
Is like a great cloud that thunders and rains abundantly. 53 i
The great leader of the doctrine, guardian of the mirror of the doctrine,
Who illuminates the Buddhadharma, treasury of wisdom,
Who, guardian and propagator of the sayings, who rings the bell of the doctrine,
Is like an ocean-going ship that assures to all the crossing of the sea.
[99a] Like the king of the bees gathering nectar
He preaches according to the counsel and intentions of the Buddha.
He helps the Buddha, illuminates his doctrine and saves beings:
Such a teacher of the doctrine is very difficult to find.
10. GAMBHIRADHARMAKSANTIPARAMGATA
Sutra: They have crossed over to the other shore of the patience relating to the profound dharmas
(gamhhu-aclhaiinaksantiparamgataih).
Sastra: What are the profound dharmas (gambhiradharma)!
1) The twelve causes and conditions (dvadasalielitpratyaya) are called gamhhlradharma. Thus the Buddha
said to Ananda: "The twelve causes and conditions (or pratltyasamutpada) are profound (gambhira),
difficult to probe (durvigahya) and difficult to understand {dm anubodha)."
2) Also, we call gambhiradharma the breaking of the thread (jdld) of the sixty-two wrong views
(drstigata) relating to the past (atfta) and the future (anagata). Thus the Buddha said to the bhiksus: "The
foolish ignorant person (bdlo 'srutavan) who wants to praise the Buddha finds only meager praises. In
order to praise the Buddha truly, one should praise the purity of the precepts (silasuddhi), renunciation of
desire (vairdgya), the profound doctrine (dharma gambhira), difficult to sound (durvigahya) and difficult
to understand (duranubodhd).^
"1 These first four stanzas seem to be a versification of a passage of the Anguttara, II, p. 102 (cf. Tseng yi a han, T 125,
k. 18, p. 635a) devoted to the four types of rain-clouds (valahaka): The person who speaks and does not act (bhasita no
katta) is compared to a cloud that thunders and does not rain (gajjita no vassita); the person who acts but docs not speak
i/ , i loud that rain bul loi n t thund ri < a) the person who docs not speak and docs
in i l ( i i i i i) i i loud Ih i n mi i tin u I i ii i i in ( i I i i: the person who spcal
u I i i c«), to loud that nil i'liiinl rs and rains ( / / i l
i n , i in Digha, 1, p. 12 (Tchan a han, T 1, k. 14, p. 89cl8-21; Fan wang lieou che eul kien king, T 21, p.
66a) > / Icyyinn. "Such, O m inks, aie the trifles, the
Here the Fan wang king (Brahmajalasutra) should be discussed fully.
3) The three gates of deliverance (vimoksamukha) are also called (gambhfradharma) as the Buddha said in
the Prajnaparamita. The gods praised him, saying: "O Bhagavat, this doctrine is profound", and the Buddha
replied: "This profound doctrine has as its meaning (artha) emptiness (sunyata), wishlessness (apranihita)
and signlessness (animitta)."
4) The explanation of the nature of all dharmas (sarvadharmalaksananirmocana) is also called
gambhiradharma: the true (satya) nature, indestructible (aksaya) and immutable (aksobya, acala).
5) Finally, we also call gambhfradharma the exclusion of inner conceptual knowledge
(adhyatmacitta i ■ , uji , ,/) and the fixing of the concentrated mind (samahitacittaikcigruta) on the pure
true nature of all dharmas (sarvadharmavisuddhasatyalaksana). Just as, in the thick of a fog, one sees
something that is not yellow as yellow, so by the play of conceptual knowledge one finds dharmas that are
merely superficial. Just as a pure eye, not surrounded by fog, sees correctly as yellow that which is yellow,
so the pure eye of wisdom (prajnacaksurvisuddhi), freed from conceptual knowledge, sees the true nature
of dharmas. - When mixed with a yellow substance, clear water becomes yellow {pita); the water changes
color [according to the dye]: blue (nfla), red (lohita), white (avadata), etc. It is the same for the mind: By
the activity of conceptual knowledge, the fool (bald) finds various natures in dharmas. Seeing that the true
nature of dharmas is neither empty (sunyd) nor non-empty (asunya), neither existent (sat) nor non-existent
(asat), and penetrating deeply into this doctrine without deviations or blockage, this is what is called
"having crossed over to the other shore of the acquiescence relating to profound dharmas"
(gambhiradhannaksclntiparaingata). Pclramgata (in Chinese, tou) means "having obtained" the
gambhfradharma. When [this acquiescence] is full, complete and without obstacle (asanga), one has
"reached the other shore" (paramgata).
11. VAISARADYAPRAPTA
Sutra: They have obtained the fearlessnesses (vaisaradhyapraptaih).
Sastra: The bodhisattvas are endowed with the four vaisaradyas.
Question. - The bodhisattvas have not 'done what had to be done' (krtakrtya) and have not acquired
omniscience (sarvajnana); how can the sutra say that they have acquired the four vaisaradyas?
minute details of the simple morality of which worldly people speak when praising the Tathagata. But there are other
profound dharmas. difficult to see, difficult to understand, peaceful, exquisite, eluding controversy, subtle and cognizable
only by the wise. These are the ones which the Tathagata himself recognized and realized and which he truly propounds;
one should speak of these when one wants to praise (he I athagata properly in. a mariner conforming io the truth."
Answer. - The vaisdradyas, the fearlessnesses, are of two types: the vaisdradya of the Buddha and the
vaisdradya of the bodhisattva."3 These bodhisattvas do not possess the vaisaradyas of the Buddha but
they have acquired those of the [99b] bodhisattva. This is why they are called vaisdradyaprdpta.
Question. - What are the four vaisdradyas of the bodhisattva?
Answer. - 1) He preaches the Dharma in the assembly with assurance because he remembers everything
that he has heard, because he has acquired the dharanls and because he always remembers without
forgetting.
2) In the assembly he preaches with assurance because he knows all beings, the means of liberating them,
the strength or weakness of their faculties (indriya) and, in this way, he preaches the Dharma to them
according to their needs (yathdyogam).
3) In the assembly he preaches the Dharma with assurance because he sees in the [four] directions - east
(puirasycim < ) oulh (cluksinasyci , ; ) est (puscinui) a I and north (uttu vu Usi) - in the
four intermediate directions (yidis) and also at the zenith (upasistdd disi) and the nadir (adhastdd disi), that
there is nobody who can come and make any objection (codana) to which he would be unable to reply
correctly.
4) In the great assembly he preaches the Dharma with assurance for he authorizes all beings to set
objections for him; he answers appropriately according to their wishes and he is able to cut through the
doubts (samsayaeclieclaiia) of all beings.
12. MARAKARMASAMATIKRANTA
Sutra: They have passed beyond the works of Mara (mdrakarmasamatikrdnaih).
Sdstra: 1) There are four kinds of maras: a) the affliction-mara (klesamdra), b) the aggregate-mara
(skandhamdra), c) the death-mara (mrtyumdra), d) the son-of-god-mara {devaputramdra), chief of the
parinirmitavasavartin gods. ™ By attaining the state of bodhisattva, these bodhisattvas have destroyed the
klesamdra; by acquiring the dharmakaya, they have destroyed the skandhamdra; by being always one-
pointed (ekacitta), by not adhering to any (heavenly) sphere and by entering into the immoveable
concentrations (acalasamddhi), they have destroyed the paranirmitavasavartin devaputramdra. This is why
it is said that they have passed beyond the works of Mara.
553 The vaisaradyas of the Buddha are listed in the Mahavyutpatti no. 131-134; those of the bodhisattva, ibid., no. 782-
785. See also Samgraha, p. 59, for a short bibliography of the vaisdradyas.
554 These four maras are mentioned in Mahavastu, III, p. 273, 281; Madh, vrtti, p. 442; Dharmasamgraha, ch. LXXX;
ik i 'muccaya, p. 198. - The late Pali sources recognize a further mara, abhisankhdra-mdra; cf. Malalasekera, II, p.
611-613.
2) Furthermore, in the Prajnaparamita, in the chapter on Kio mo (Maravabodhaparivarta), 55 the Buddha
spoke of the activities and the works of Mara. When one has completely gone beyond the activities and
works of Mara, one merits the epithet mdrakarmasamatikrdnta.
3) Furthermore, rejection of the true nature of dharmas (sarvadharmasatyalaksana) and the other
destructions of this kind are called mara as well.
4) Finally, the afflictions (Mesa), the fetters (samyojana), the bonds of desire (kamabandhana), the
outburst of attachment (rdgaparyavasthdna), the aggregates, the bases of consciousness and the elements
(skandhdyatanadhdtu), the god Mara (mdradeva), Mara's people (mdrakdyika), Mara's servants
(mtirajana), etc., are also called Mara.
Question. - Where is it that the bonds of desire (kamabandhana) and other fetters (samyojana) are called
mara'.'
Answer. - In the Tsa tsang king (Ksudraka), 55 " the Buddha addressed the following stanzas to king
Mara: 557
-*" This chapter dedicated to Mara is in the I'anca\ imsati. It is entitled So mo p'in (Maravabodhaparivarta) in Moksala's
version, T 221, chap. XL VII, k. 10, p. 72c-74b: Mo die p'in (.Ylarakarmaparivarta) in ICumarajiva's version, T 223, chap.
XL VI, k. 13, p. 318b-320b. The Marakarmaparivarta, chap. 21 of the Astasahasrika, ed. R. Mitra, p. 385-396, is very
similar.
-"" S. Levi, Les seize Arhats protecteurs de la hi, Extract of JA, 1916, p. 32 sq., shows how the Chinese translators
i ii I i I ili ,i in 'i he \\c n! 1 'mi <Li il < olli ction [pitaka]' in order to » 1 1 tin ui i> it n m /
a hart, the traditional designation for the Saiiiyukta agama. But I [Lamotte] doubt whether Tsa tsang king restores an
original Ksiulrakagania, because the .Vlpps is familiar with only four tigiinias, namely, Lkollara, Vladhyama, Dirgha and
Samyukta (cf. Mpps. T 1509, k. 2, p. 69c; k. 33, p. 306c) , in contrast with Pah Buddhism which knows five nikayas,
namely, DIgha, Ylajjhima, Samyutta, Angiittara and Khiiddaka. If ii then cites a ICsudraka, it cannot be under the title of
agiuim, but only under the name of a sntra or group of separate sutras. This is why, in the manner of the Kosavyakhya, p.
i / ' / 1 [1 mi lie] ha ranslatcd onl ' draka
557 These stanzas occur, with a few differences, in the Suttanipata, v.436-439, 443-445, 449, and Lalitavistara, p. 262-
263, the texts of which follow:
Suttanipata: Lalitavistara:
436) Kamma tepathama send.... Kamas te pratiunnina sent/....
< • ' I ' vuccati trsna sena earurthika//
437) PancamTtlviuimiddliliaii te.,,, I'aijcaim styanamiddham te....
ma/< '/( / nihlit i atthamo// krodhann iksau tatlia
438) Uihlio siloko sakkaro.... Labaslokau ca satkaro....
pare ca avajdnati// yas ca vai dhvamsayet pardn//
439) Esd, Namuci, te send.... Esd hi Namuceh send
ietvti i Itihlititi sukliain krsnahandlio pratapinah
440) Esa munjani pari hue....
yancejTveparniitti
441) Pagdlhd ettha na dissanti.... Atrdvagddhd drsyante
Desires (kdma) are your first army {send),
The army of sadness (arati) is the second,
The army of hunger and thirsl (ksutpipdsa) is the third,
The army of greed (trisnd) is the fourth.
The fifth is the army of languor and torpor (stydnamiddha),
The army of fear (bhaya) is the sixth.
Doubt (yicikitsa) is the seventh army
The army of anger (krodha) and hypocrisy (mraksa) is the eighth.
The ninth army is covetousness (labdhd)
And attachment to vain glory (mithydysas),
The tenth army is self-praise (dtmotkarsa)
And distrust of others (pardvajnd).
[99c] These, your armies,
No person in the world
Or any god
Can destroy them.
By the power of wisdom's arrow,
yena gachanti subbhatd//
' i i Uriiin <// mi .
Ma mam (hand aeavayi/.
443) Yam te rati! iia-ppasaliati (si
amam pattam va asmand//
4-4-4-) Vasinikaritva \anikappani...
sdvake vinayam puthu
145) 1) >, <p i natta uahh m
yattha gantva na socare//
449) Tassa sokaparetassa vina....
tatt' ev' antaradltayatlta
Etc srainanahraliinanah.
na dharsayati...
te dmapdtram ivambana//
Smrtim supasthitam krtva....
kiiii karisyasi (/urinate-.
(In pro i i'l \-lai
tatraivdntaradhdt.
By cultivating concentration and wisdom,
I will smash your army, O Mara,
Like a clay pol (clinapatra).
With a mind solely cultivating wisdom
I will save the world.
My disciples, full of energy,
Ever mindful, will cultivate wisdom.
Following my example, they will progress in accordance with the Dharma
And will certainly reach nirvana.
Even though you do not want to let them,
They will go where you cannot go.
Then king Mara, on hearing this,
Angry and confused, departed;
And the evil army of maras
Also disappeared and vanished.
Such is the mara of the fetters (samyojana).
Question. - Where are the five aggregates (skandha), the eighteen elements (dhdtu) and the twelve bases of
consciousness (aval ana) named mara?
Answer. - on Mount Mo kiu lo (Makula), the Buddha taught [the following] to the disciple Lo t'o
(Radha):"° "The form aggregate (rupaskandha) is mara; feeling (vedand), perception (samjnd), formation
"° The Mpps seems lo attach great importance to the Radhasutras to which it often refers (see also k. 31, p. 282al8 and
p. 295b28). Radha appears in the 46 suttas of the Radhasamyutta (Samyutta, III, p. 188-201) and in the surras no. 1 1 1-129
of the Tsa a han, T 99, k. 6, p. 37c-41b. But whereas the Radhasuttas of the Samyutta take place al Savatthi, the
Radhasutras of the Tsa a han are located, as here, on Mount Mo kiu lo (64 and 11; 64 and 5; 122 and 14). Two questions
risi !m i i i. kit o'! Is thci i 'mil lio l bcl en Mo ki < uid ravasti'?
I here i i i/ ' / it in ih < mini >l Buddh i\ ini up md a ;1 r Manku in the Icgi nd if 1 una
The traditions relating to this individual arc found in .Ylajjhima, 111, p. 267-270 (tr. Chalmers, II, p. 307-308); Samyutta.
IV, p. 60-63 (tr. Woodward, Kindred Sayings, IV, p. 34-36); Tsa a han, T 99, no. 215, k. 8, p. 54b, and no, 311, k. 13,
89b-c; Divyavadana, p. 24-55 (tr. Burnouf, Introduction, p. 200 245); Ken pen chouo... yao che, T 1448, k. 1, p. 7c-17a;
Theragatha Comm., in Rh. D., Brethren, p. 70-71; Karmavibhahga, p. 63-64; PapancasudanI, V, p. 85-92;
(samskara) and consciousness (vijitdna) are also mara."" Wishing to create for oneself a material
existence (rupdtmabhdva) in the future (andgatajanma) is to seek an unstable sphere (calasthdna); wishing
to create a non-material existence (drupydtmabhdva) is again seeking an unstable sphere; wishing to create
an aware, non-aware, neither aware nor non-aware existence {samjM-asamjnd-naivasamjndndsamjnd-
dtmabhdva) is still seeking an unstable sphere. This instability is a bond of Mara (mdrabandhana); stability
is the elimination of bonds, deliverance from evil." At this place, the Buddha said that the skandhas, dhdtus
and ay a tanas are mara.
It goes without saying that the vasavartin devaputramara, the marakayikas and the marajanas are mara.
Saratthappakasinl, II, p. 374-379. - In T 99, p. 89b, Si fang chou lou na "Srona of the west"; in T 1448, p. 12a, - Chou na
po lo k'ie, "Sronaparantaka". He w as horn al Surparaka [in Pah, Supparaka; - in T 1448, p. 7c, Choupo lo kia], at the time
of the Greeks the major port of India on the sea of Oman (Periple of the Erythrean Sea, ed. H. Frisk, 52; Ptolemy, ed. L
Renou, VII, i, v. 6). Honored by Asoka with a rock edict (Hultsch, Inscr. ofAsoka, p. 118), but reduced today to tin: rank
of a modest locality by the name of Sopara in the district of Bombay. A Buddhist stupa has been discovered here with
relics enshrined in stone, silver and gold caskets, as well as a coin from king Andhra GautamTputra Satakarni.
Purna, ha m I uric a rich merchant nt to Sravasti ith In i n ih i h met the Buddha, was com cried and
entered the Order where he was distinguished by his zeal. one day he requested from the Buddha a short sermon thai he
could memonze so as to return to the Sronaparantakas, this is when the Buddha pr< i hed ilv I nnnii u! i uii
(.Ylajjhima, 111, p. 267-270). Puma returned to his compatriots, the Sronaparantakas. According lo the Papahcasudani and
tin - u ii'h ipp i! in i in: il" it.) he livi d in I n i '< h n ' tin 11 succi ivcly in 11111 gii h ill 1 n>l \ia 1 • ii
11 i I111 ill 1 1 / 1 n 1. In this monastery, located "in near and not too far from the
mercantile cit\ of Surparaka" (cf. Papanca, V, p. 87: variij • < ti iiaccasaimo) Purna Ihered iround
him Ii 1 lai numl 1 1 m 1I1 n I 1 m ill Ji ipl ind - ith ih mcl 1\ >"d \ hi. '1 hi I rotln 1 h J 1 1 11 him \v b 'ill
i.ndaki /"circular] 1I1 >i 1! panca, II, p. 377), also called by the Divyavadana, p. 43, candaiiainaUi prasada,
"monastery or palace with levels or a sandalwood pavilion" (see the explanations by S. Levi in ICarmav ibhahga, p. 63 and
64 as note: this palace is represented on a miniature studied by Foucher, Iconographie bouddhique, pi. I, no. 6). The
Buddha flew there with 500 arhats and stayed overnight. The Papanca and the Sarattha (loc. cit) tell us that on returning,
he stopped near the river Narmada (in Pali, Nammada, the present Nerbudda, which marks the boundary between
Uttarapatha run! Daksinapatha); he was received by the king of the nagas at whose request he left his foot-print on the
bank. - In all likelihood, the Makulapabbata where Purna hail built his monastery is identical with Mo kiu lo chem where
the Tsa a han and the Mpps locate the Radhasutras.
Bui then why does the Samyutta locate the Radhasuttas at Savatthi? Would ii be out of a spirit of rivalry, in order io make
Gangctic India the sole cradle of Buddhist lexis and eliminate Aparanta (western India) from the map of hob. places? I he
reason is simpli 1 u .11 aid in bi port '.1 Vpai .m . re in lose touch 1 , isti 1 cparatcd from irparaka b\ 1
distance of 100 to 125 yqjanas (cf. Divyavadana, ] 14: Dhammapadatth II 1 14) which mid 1 '11 led in 01 night
(ekarattipariraseiia) if the performance of Bahiva Daruciriya (Udana, I, 10, p. 7) is to be believed. We have seen that
Purna, a native of Surparaka, led his caravans to Sravasti; we know from the Divyavadana, p. 34, that the Sravasti
merchants brought their wares to Surparaka to load (hem onto the ships. The latter city was also an export and import port
of western India. The Apadana, II, p. 476 and Jataka, III, p. 188 tell us that there was regular traffic between Surparaka.
Bharukaccha, the actual Broach) and the enigmatic Suvarna-bhumi, the Chrusc Chcrsoncsos of the Greeks. The echo of
ih ! nil) uii preached at Sin <a \ ml I h < bi n h rd at Si i 1 1.1 1 < > 1 1
55 ^ Cf. Samyutta, III,p 195 ' , 'dio Rddha Ma.ro 1 1 vi nm Maradhammo.
Question. - Why is he called Mara?
Answer. - He is called Mara because he carries off (harati) the ayusmat and because he destroys the good
root of the dharmas of the Path and of the qualities (guna).The heretics (tirthika) call him Yu tchou
(Kamadhipati), Houa tsien ( Kusumayudha) or also Won tsien ! i u i idha) 5 "^ In the Buddhist texts, he is
called Mara because he destroys all good works.
His actions and works are called marakarman.
Question. - What are the works of Mara?
Answer. - 1) They are defined in the chapter of the Kio mo (Maravabodhaparivarta).^" 1
2) Furthermore, if people have had to undergo happiness and misfortune in the course of successive
lifetimes, the causes are the fetters (samyojana) as well as king Mara, who is called the enemy of the
Buddha (buddhavairin), the thief of the holy ones (aryacaurd). Because he destroys [100a] the actions of
all who are ascending the current (pratisrotagdmiri), because he has a horror of nirvana, he is called Mara.
3) Mara has three types of actions: a) play (lila), laughter (hdsya), idle chatter (dlapd), singing (grtd),
dancing (nrtya), and everything that provokes desire (rdga); b) iron fetters (bandahana), beating
(ghattana), whipping (kasa), wounds (prahdraddna), spikes (kantaka), knives (sastra), slashing
(samchedana) and everything that is caused by hatred (dvesa); c) [demented mortifications] such as being
burned, being frozen, tearing out one's hair (kesolluncana), starving, jumping into the fire, throwing
oneself into the water, falling onto spears and everything that results from stupidity (moha).
4) Finally, the great hindrances (ddinavd), impure attachments to the world, that is all the work of Mara.
Hatred of the good, scorn of nirvana and of the path to nirvana are also the work of Mara. Plunging into the
ocean of suffering without ever awakening and innumerable errors of this kind are all the work of Mara.
When one has rejected and abandoned these, one is mdrakarmasamatikrdnta.
13. KARMAVARANAPRATIPRASRABDHA
Sutra: They were liberated from the action-obstacle (karmdvaranapratiprasrabdhaih).
Sastra: The person who is liberated from all evil actions (pdpakarman) is called
karma varanapratiprasralxllia
Question. - There are three kinds of obstacles (dvarana): i) the obstacle consisting of the afflictions
(klesdvarana), ii) the obstacle consisting of action (karmdvarana), iii) the obstacle consisting of retribution
( vipakavarana)?^- Why does the sutra set aside two of these and speak only of the karmdvarana here?
560 The epithets of Kama, god of love, arc innumerable: Kusuma: -astrah, -ayudhah, -huh, -htnjah. sarah; Panca: -
i : ,uii. -haiuili, -sarah. These five armies aie aravi/i ca attain ca ntn pala c
Pancabdnasya sdyakdh.
561 See above.
A detailed study of these three obstacles may be found in Kosa, IV, p. 202-205.
Answer. - Of these three obstacles, action is the greatest. once accumulated {upacitta),^ actions last for
hundreds of koti of kalpas without being lost, changed or deteriorating; they produce their fruit of
retribution (vipdkaphala) without loss of time; when these long-lasting actions meet the favorable complex
[of conditions] and time (sa„rim prdpya kdlam ca), they produce their fruit of retribution. "^
They are like rice grains (salihfia) that have fallen on the ground which, at the proper time, germinate
without being lost or deteriorating. That is [the teaching] of the omniscient {sarvajiia) buddhas worthy of
respect by all. If Sumeru, king of the mountains, cannot reverse his actions, what can be said about an
ordinary person (prthagjana)! Some stanzas say:
The wheel of transmigration {samsdracakra) drags man along
With his afflictions (klesa) and his fetters (samyojana).
Very powerful, it turns freely;
Nobody can stop it.
Actions carried out during previous lifetimes
Change into all kinds of forms.
The power of action is very strong;
It has no equal in the world.
The actions of previous lifetimes are the masters
Forcing a person to undergo their retribution.
The wheel turns by the power of actions,
It turns in the sea of samsara.
The waters of the ocean can dry up,
The earth of Sumeru can be exhausted,
But the actions of previous lifetimes
Are never used up, never exhausted.
Actions accumulated (upacitta) for a long time
Follow their creator
- ,( " Action accomplished (krta) and action accumulated (upacitta) must be distinguished. Action is said to be
'ac um il i i [ 11 u 1 11 an n I i H i i i i mi iction l i il n f regret (/ i
n i i on i i i i ( i ik i ii i impanimcnt ( n i) >nl i i ibul m (vipaka) c K.o I i I 1 1
Paraphrase of a well-known stanza endlessly repeated in the Vinayas and the Avadanas, such as the Divya, the
i* id in i itaka, etc.: na vai ', Vctioi d not perish. c\ en after hundreds of millions of cosmic
periods. Meeting the desired complex [of conditions] and time, they ripen for the spirit."
Like a creditor
Relentlessly following his debtor.565
Nobody can escape
The fruit of the retribution of action;
There is no place to escape it;
one cannot escape it by asking for pardon.
[100b] Action relentlessly pursues
The beings of the threefold world.
It is like the K'o li lo tch 'a. 566
This action was defined by the Buddha.
Wind does not penetrate into solids,
The waves do not turn back in their course,
Space suffers no harm,
Neither does non-action.
Actions have tremendous power
Which is never ineffectual.
When the time of retribution has come
one cannot escape from it, one cannot avoid it.
From the earth [one can] rise up to the sky
From the sky, one can penetrate the Himavat,
From the Himavat, one can plunge into the ocean:
Nowhere will one escape from action." '
^*" An allusion to a theory of the Samittlyas on the mechanism of retribution: good or bad action perishes as soon as
born, but it deposits in the sencs | ; | >i thi igenl i i rtaii ntil i II d w i ompai able to the page on
which debts (rinapattrd) are recorded. See Madh. vrtti, p. 317-323 (tr. Lamotte, in MCB, IV, 1935-36, p. 276-280);
Madh. avatara, p. 126, 1. 12 (tr. Lav. Museon, 1910, p. 318); Karmasiddhiprakarana, MCB, IV, 1935-36, p. 230, n. 37).
^"" K'o li lo tch'a is the name of a tree according to the Bukkyo daijiten, p. 212a.
567 Cf. the stanza of Divyavadana, p. 532, 561, and the Sanskrit Udanavarga, p. 98:
naivaiitankse na sainudrainadhye .... yatra stliitain nil prasaheta karma 1
It has its Pali correspondent in Dhammapada, no. 127:
na aiitalikkhe na saimtddaiitajjlie .... yattliattluto inuiiceyya papakaiiuna
Action forever follows us,
Never does it leave us.
It goes straight on, it does not miss its time
Like the tide which follows the moon.
This is why, [in order to praise them], it is said that the bodhisattvas are liberated from every action-
obslaclc {sarvakarindvaranapratiprasrabdha).
14.PRATIITYASAMUTPANNADHARMANIRDESAKUSALA
Sutra: They were skilled in teaching dependent origination (pratityasamutpannadharmanirdesakusalaih).
Sdstra: They are capable of teaching the twelve-membered (dvadasdrigapratityasamutpadayvo in
different ways (iidiiddhaniiaparydyaih) .
Affliction {Mesa), action (karman) and basis (vastu) arise one after the other (krama) according to a
continuous development (paramparaprabandha); this is called the twelve-membered
pratltyasamutpada.""
Three of these [twelve members] are called affliction (klesa): ignorance (avidya), craving (trsna) and
grasping (upadana); two members are called action (karman): formations (samskdra) and coming into
existence (bhava); the other seven are called bases (vastu)? '"
In genera/ (samdsatah), the three categories, affliction (klesa), action (karman) and suffering (duhkha) are
mutual and reciprocal causes and conditions (pavampavdnyonyahctupratyayd): 1) Klesa is cause and
condition for karman [because avidya precedes the imsl a inc.1 upd, ma precedes bhava]; 2) karman is
cause and condition for duhkha [because samskdra precedes vijhdna and bhava prci .1 /', <//]; 3) duhkha is
cause and condition for duhkha [because vijhdna precedes ndmarupa; ndmarupa precedes sadayatana;
sadayatana precedes sparsa; spuria precedes vedand; jdti precedes jar amar ana]; 4) duhkha is cause and
condition for klesa [because vedand precedes trsna]. ' * Since klesa is cause and condition for karman,
karman cause and condition for duhkha, and duhkha cause and condition for duhkha, it is a matter of
mutual and reciprocal causes and conditions.
I. Avidya, ignorance, is all the afflictions (klesa) of past existence (atityajanma).
It is often quoted in the Vinayas: cf. Che song liu, T 1435, k. 36, p. 260b; Ken pen chouo ... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 18,
p. 192c.
'"° In the third chapter of the Kosa, p. 60-138, there is a complete explanation of the problems related to
prali't} asamutpada, along u ith an abundant bibliography . The monograph of L. de La Vallec Poussin, Theorie des douze
causes, Gand, 1913, is still very ir
569 Cf. Kosa, III, 68, 116.
570 ibid., p. 68.
571 ibid., p. 69.
2. From avidya there arise actions (karman) which realize fruition in a universe (lokadhatu). These are the
samskdras, formations.
3. From samskara there arises a defiled mind (samalacitta), initial cause of the [present] existence.
Because it is aware in the way that a calf (vatsa) is aware of its mother, it is called vijndna, consciousness.
4. This vijndna produces both the four formless aggregates (arupiskandha) [perception (samjnd), feeling
(vedand), volition | im kdrd) consciousn (vijm l] and form pa)v hich serves as base them. This is
name and form, nam a nip a.
5. From this namarupa there arise the six sense organs, eye, etc. (caksurddisadindriya). These are the
scidclycikmas, the six [inner] bases of consciousness.
6. The meeting (samnipdta) of organ (indriya), object (visaya) and a consciousness (vijndna) is called
sparsa, contact.
7. From sparsa there arises vedand, sensation.
8. Within vedand there arises an adherence of mind (cittdbhinivesa) called craving or thirst, trsna.
9. The tendency caused by trsna is called updddna, grasping, attachment.
10. From this updddna comes action {karman) which brings about the new existence
(punarbhavahetupratyaya) which is called bhava, the act of existence.
11. As a consequence of this bhava, one reassumes the five aggregates (skandha) of the new lifetime
(punarhhava). This is called jdti, birth.
12. The decay of the five skandhas coming from this jdti is called jaramarana, old-age-and-death.
Jaramarana gives rise to dissatisfaction {daurmanasya), sorrow [100c] (parideva) and all kinds of worries
(soka); and thus the mass of suffering (duhkhaskandhasamudaya) accumulates.
If the purity of the true nature of dharmas (dharmasatyalaksanaviusuddhi) is considered one -pointedly
(ekacitta), ignorance (avidya) vanishes. When avidya has disappeared, the formations (samskara) also
vanish and, as a result, [all the members of pratltyasamutpada disappear one after the other] until the entire
mass of suffering (duhkhaskandhasamudaya) vanishes. The person who, by means of these soteriological
means (upaya) and by not being attached to wrong views (mithyddrsti), is able to teach people, is said to be
skillful (kusala). Also said to be skillful is the person who, examining these twelve causes-and-conditions,
rejects any system and refuses to adhere to it so as to understand only the true nature [underlying the
pratltyasamutpada]. Thus, in the Prajnaparamita in the chapter entitled Pou k'o tsin (Aksayaparivarta), the
Buddha says to Subhuti: "Avidya is indestructible (aksaya) like space; the samskaras are indestructible like
space and similarly [all the members of pratltyasamutpada] and the mass of suffering
(duhkhaskandhasamudaya) are indestructible like space. The bodhisattva should know that. The person
who understands that cuts off the head of ignorance without falliong into it. The person who sees the
twelve-membered pratityasamutpada in that way will sit on the throne of bodhi (bodhimanda) and will
become omniscient (sarvajna)."512
15.ASAMKHYEYAKALPAPRANIDHANASUSAMARABDHA
Sutra: They have formulated the vows since incalculable periods ago
(asamkhyeyakalpapi-anidlulnasusumtlrahclhaih).
Sdstra: The meaning of the word 'asamkhyeya' has already been explained above in the chapter on the
Bodhisattva. As for the word 'kalpa', the Buddha defined it by the following comparisons:
"Suppose there is a rocky mountain {sailaparvata) four thousand li [in size] to which a venerable monk
(ayusmat) comes once every hundred years (varsasatasyatyayena), brushing against it with his silk robe
(kdsika vastra): this great rock mountain would be worn out before a kalpa passes. "573 . "s U pp 0se there is
a great city (nagard) of four thousand li, full of mustard seeds (sarsapa), unsorted and not leveled out, and
that a venerable monk comes once every hundred years and takes away one seed: the mustard seeds would
have disappeared before a kalpa would have passed."^ ™
During innumerable kalpas of this kind, the bodhisattva has formed the great vow to save all beings. This is
what is called the vow of the Great Mind. In order to save all beings, the fetters (samyojand) must be cut
through and supreme perfect enlightenment (anuttarasamyaksambodhi) must be realized. This is what is
called vow.
16. SMITAMUKHAPURVABHILAPIN
Sutra: They speak with a smiling face (smitamukhapurvdbhildpibhih).
Sdstra: Because they have uprooted hatred (dvesa), chased away envy (frsya), nd always practice great
loving-kindness (mahdmaitrt), great compassion (mahdkarund) and great joj (mahdmuditd), because they
" 2 This passage of the Aksayaparivarta occurs in the Pancavimsati; Moksala's transl., T 221, ch. LXVIII, k. 15, p.
106a26-106b8; - KumarajTva's transl., T 223, ch. LXVII, k. 20, p. 364M0-24; - Hiuan-tsang's transl., T 220, k. 458, p.
315c3-22.
573 Pabbatasutta: Samyutta, II, p. 181; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 949), k. 34, p. 242c; T 100 (no. 342), k. 10, p. 487c; Tseng yi
lian, T 125, k. 5 1 / i , na h eva kappo.
574 Sasapasutta: Samyutta, II, p. 182; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 948), k. 34, p. 242c; T 100 (no. 3421), k. 16, p. 487c; Tseng yi
a han, T 125 k. 51, p. 8251 / i I \ >
have avoided the four kinds of evil speech (mithyavada)? '^ they have acquired a pleasant face. Some
stanzas say:
Seeing a mendicant monk
He treats him in four ways:
As soon as he sees him, he looks at him kindly,
He goes to meet him and speaks to him respectfully.
He gives him a seat
And fulfills all his wishes:
[101a] With such generous inclinations
The state of Buddhahood is quite close.
The person who avoids the four sins of speech;
Lying (mrsavada), slander (paisunya),
Harmful speech (pdrusya) and frivolous speech (sambhinnapralapa)
Gains a magnificent reward
The kind, gentle person who seeks the Path,
Wishes to save beings,
And avoids the four sins of speech
Is like a harnessed horse.
17. MAHAPARSANMADHYE VAISARADYASAMANVAGATA
Sutra: In the great assembly, they are endowed with the fearlessnesses (mahaparsanmadhye
Sastra: As a result of their great merits, their firm qualities and their wisdom, they have acquired a supreme
dharam of eloquence (niruktidhdranT) and, in the midst of the great assembly, they enjoy the fearlessnesses
(vaisharadya). Some stanzas say:
- > '- ) The four mithyavadas arc lies (mrsavada), scandal (paisunya), harmful speech (pdrusya) and frivolous speech
(sambhinnapralapa). Cf. DIgha, I, p. 4, 138; III, p. 232; Majjhima, I, p. 361-362; Samyutta, II, p. 167; Kosa, IV, p. 164-
Inwardly, his mind, his wisdom and his merits are slender;
Outwardly, he resorts to fine words:
He is like a bamboo (venu) without pith
That shows only its exterior.
Inwardly, his mind, his wisdom and his merits are vast;
Outwardly he makes use of true words:
He is like a beautiful diamond ( vajra )
The inner and outer power of which are complete.
Moreover, they are endowed with the fearlessnesses, they are handsome, of noble family and of great
power. Their discipline (sila), their concentration (samadhi) and their wisdom (prajna) are perfect. Having
nothing to fear, this is why they are fearless in the midst of the great assembly. Some stanzas say:
The person of little merit and without wisdom
Is unable to occupy a high seat.
He is like a wolf in the face of a lion
That crouches down and does not dare to come out.
The great sage is without fear,
He can occupy the lion's seat.
He is like the lion whose roar
Makes all the beasts tremble.
Having accumulated immense and infinite wisdom and merit, they have nothing to fear. Some stanzas say:
The person who has destroyed all his faults
And succeeds in avoiding the minor sins,
A great virtuous person of this kind
Has no vow that cannot be realized.
This person of great wisdom
Is free of suffering in this world,
Because for such a person
Samsara and nirvana are identical.
Finally, they have acquired only the fearlessnesses belonging to the bodhisattva. Thus, in the P'i na p'o na
wang kingr '" it is said that the bodhisattvas acquire only the four fearlessnesses (vaisdradya). This has
been said above.
18.ANANTAKALPAKOTIDHARMADESANANIHSARANAKUSALA
Sutra: For innumerable koti of kalpas, they have been skilled in preaching the Dharma and in surpassing
(aiHintakulpakoticIharmaclcsananihsai-aiiakusalaih).
Sdstra: They themselves have thoroughly cultivated the roots of good [101b] (kusalamula), such as zeal
(apramdda), etc. This was not for just one, two, three or four lifetimes, but indeed for innumerable
asamkhyeyakalpas that the bodhisattvas have accumulated qualities (guna) and wisdom (prajna). A stanza
says:
They have produced the great thought for beings;
The person who disdains and scorns them
Commits an unspeakably grave sin.
How much more guilty the person who wants to harm them!
Moreover, for incalculable (asamkhyeyd) and immeasurable (aprameyd) kalpas, the bodhisattvas have
cultivated their body, practiced discipline (sila), exercised their mind (citta) and their intelligence (mati),
understood themselves arising (utpdda) and cessation (nirodha), the bonds (bandhana) and deliverance
(vimoksa), intractability^ '' (pratiloma) • > d ptabilil I » do ) I hey understand the true nature of
dharmas (c/lianuasaiyalaksana); they possess the three kinds of analysis (nirmocana), namely, of text
(sruta), of meaning (artha) and of acquisition (labha); they understand the various sermons
(ndnddharmaparyayd) without difficulty (pratigha); in order to preach the doctrine they use the virtue of
skillful means (updyakausalyapdramita) and the virtue of wisdom (prajnapdramita); all the words of these
bodhisattvas are the words of the aryas to whom it is appropriate to accord faith. Some stanzas say:
The person who is intelligent but who lacks knowledge
Does not know the true nature.
He is like an eye that can see nothing
In complete darkness.
The learned person who has no wisdom
5 '" Lamotte says he does not know what sutra this is.
"' Lamotte translates pratiloma as "rebellion" in French, in English 'intractibility". Monier Williams gives: re"
in rtcd, ad Ik lil n i 1 1 i i| I nl in inverted or i rdci in I the natural com l J i
5 '° Lamotte translates uiniloma as "adaptation", in English, adaptability. Monier Williams gives: natural directii
order, regular, successive, conformable.
Also does not know the true meaning.
He is like a lamp (dipa) in full daylight
Where the eye would be absent.
As for the learned person of keen wisdom,
His words merit trust.
The person who has neither wisdom nor knowledge
Is just an ox in a human body.
Question. - The sutra should say that the bodhisattvas for innumerable koti of kalpas are skilled in
preaching the doctrine; why does it also say [that they are skilled] in surpassing (nihsarana)1
Answer. - The bodhisattvas preach easy subjects to the ignorant and the disciples; they preach difficult
subjects to the learned (bahusruta) and the masters with keen wisdom (tiksnaprajiiopadesa). Among
teachers of mediocre knowledge, they diminish themselves; among the saiksa and the learned (bahusruta),
they welcome objections with courage and joy. Among all beings, they give evidence of great power
(anubhava). Thus, a stanza in the Tien houei king (Devasamajasutra)5 ' " says:
His face, his eyes and his teeth gleam
And light up the great assembly.
He outshines the brilliance of all the gods
Who all disappear.
This is why it is said that for innumerable koti of kalpas the bodhisattvas have been skilled in preaching the
doctrine and in surpassing.
5 '"The Taisho edition has Tien houei king "Sutra of the assembly of gods", but one should read Ta houei king "Sutra of
Hi i ii i i ii Is rding to th iii i kI I ii dition li> i ill ill given to the Mahasamajasutra in
the Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 19), k. 12, p. 79b, and in the Che song liu, T 1435, k. 24, p. 174b which, in order to avoid
error, also adds the title in transcription: Mo ho cha mo k'i kien. There are several editions of this text, which E.
Waldschmidt has studied in detail:
ll in I iih I, Ai "ii iinin ui nil il ' i nd [ml Ii Ii il ui \ iKI h.iikli IJruci ci \ 149 ()i
2) Pali text, Mahasamayasuttanta, in Digha (no. 20), II, p. 253-262. - Cf. Samyutta, I, p. 26-27.
3) Chinese translations in Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 19), k. 12, p. 79b-81b; Ta san mo jo king, T 19, vol. I, p. 258-259; Tsa a
han, T 99 (no. 1192), k. 44, p. 323a; T 100 (no. 105), k. 5, p. 411a.
1 I il i i ,i i ir i in i / il i i i I ill i i M i i mi i i 1 oni I i , >KC, no !6)
i i l Ii l i I i i i i i i i uti i j ii Hi
OKC, no. 332, p. 1 12; no. 688, p. 174).
This sutra is cited under th nil of Mm < < in I irmavibhahga, p. 156.
Error excepted, (he stanza w hich (he Vlpps attributes to it here does not occur in any of these v<
CHAPTER XI: THE TEN COMPARISONS
Text of the sutra commented upon in this chapter (cf. Pancavimsati, p. 4-5; Satasahasrika, p. 5).
(19) Mayamai i < i d i / < i i i i vapnachdydpatil i
nirmanopamadluuinddhimukutair (20) asanguvaisdi-aclyapratiluhclhuih (21) suttvacittacaritajnaih
suksnui/ndiidrciidrcikuscilcii/i.
These bodhisattvas accept that dharmas are like a magic show, a mirage, the moon reflected in water,
space, an echo, a city of the gandharvas, a dream, a shadow, a reflection in a mirror, a metamorphosis.
They have acquired the unhindered fearlessnesses. Knowing the process of mind and the behavior of
beings, they are skilled in saving them by means of their subtle wisdom.
19. THE TEN UPAMANAS
[k. 6, 101c] Sutra: These bodhisattvas accept that dharmas are like 1) a magic show, 2) a mirage, 3) the
moon reflected in water, 4) space, 5) an echo, 6) a city of the gandharvas, 7) a dream, 8) a shadow, 9) a
reflection in a mirror, 10) a creation (mdydmarTcidakacandrdkasapratisrutka-
gcinc/hcir\\is\\ipnciclHl\\iprcitihimhciniiwclnopcimciclluirnulcl/iinuiktciih)?™
-*°" According to the teaching of the Prajnas and Nagarjuna, dharmas or phenomena are empty of self-nature
(.vi i I because ll i n| ii >n i ,ii i vasam i il lharma in ire empty of self-nature,
arising from dharmas that arc themselves empty of self-nature, really do not arise (aiiutpaiiua): they are non-existent. But
if things arc non-existent, how can they be seen, heard, and experienced? It is to this question that the ten comparisons
thai arc presented here reply: they are seen in the way that one sees a ma ii il obji 1 1 the> are heard in the way that one
hears an echo, they arc experienced in the way that one experiences things in a dream, etc.
A. Although canonic;!l Buddhism and the Lesser vehicle, which is its extension, limit their criticism lo negation of the
pudgala and acknow ledge a real existence in dharmas, professions of nihilism in the spirit of pure Nagarjunaism may be
found here and there in (heir scriptures. The Mpps will give a specimen of them: this is a stanza taken from the Samyutta.
Ill, p. 142, often reproduced in the Pali texts:
phenapindupamaiii rupain vedaba bubbulupama,
inancikupaina sanua sai'ikhara kadalupama,
mdyupamaiica \ ,* nam ' radiccabandund
"Form is like a mass of foam, feeling like a bubble of water, perception is like a mirage, volition is like the trunk of a
banana tree, consciousi i lik mi i liov Ihi i hat th Buddha i i I m of tin sun, has taught."
The Dhammapada, v. 170, may also be cited:
yathd bubbulakani passe, yatlui passe maricikam.
evam lokam avekkhantam maccuraja napassati.
"See the world as a bubble of water, see it as a mirage. The lord of death docs not sec the person who considers the world
in this way."
Furthermore, most of the comparisons used by the Prajnas already occur in the canon but are presented in a differenl
spirit: sec Rhys-Davids-Stcdc, s.v. mdyd, manci, etc.
B. In ordci to explain dharmanairatmya, the Prajiias resort its ten type comparisons of which the .Ylpps gives a specimen
here. But their number is not fixed at ten and they do not follow the same order.
l"aiica\ imsati, Sanskrit text, p. 4: 1) maya, 2) inancL 3) dakacandra, 4) svapna, 5) pratisrutka, 6) pratibhdsa, 7)
pratibimba, 8) nirmana i idem in \'lahav\ ntpatti, no. 854).
Ibid., Hiuan tsang's tr., T 220, vol. VII, p. Ib22: 1) maya, 2) marici, 3) svapna, 4) dakacandra, 5) pratisrutka. 6)
a i (sky flower), 7) i mi ') ' 1 <> j / vai i
Ibid., Moksala's tr., T 221, k. 1, p. Ial7: 1) maya, 2) svapna, 3) pratisrutka, 4) pratibhdsa, 5) chdyd, 6) nirmana, 7)
budhuda, 8) pratibimba, 9) marici. 10) dakacandra.
Ibid., KumarajTva's tr,, T 223, k. 1, p.217a: cf. Mpps.
Satasahasrika, Sanskrit text, p. 5: 1) maya, 2) marici, 3) udakacandra, 4) svapna, 5) pratisrutka, 6) pratibhdsa, 7)
(/(' ' I / iba,9) nirmdna.
Ibid, p. 1209 flic cat oi I > lln ai i 1 > urn I liki ih I >Ilo\ in nun ka ikuiu, sva lava marici.
udakacandra, pratisrutka. pratibhdsa, bimba, tathagatanirmita.
I he ' i|i ii < In dil i p 46 pin ill "i Ihi nil' crsc: t vathaf
tdrakd timiram dipo dydsvasydya budbudam/
svapnain ca vidyud abhrani ca cvaiii drastavyani saniskrtam
"The conditioned should be thought to be like a star in space, shadows, a lamp., hoarfrost, a wafer bubble, a dream, a flash
of lightning a cloud. - See the Khotancsc commentary in Hocrnlc, Remains, p. 287.
C. The Vaipulyasutras repeat this entire nomenclature:
The Lalitavistara, p. 181, when listing the qualities of the bodhisattva, ends with the following list:
i. u i i. ' , vadharm flic Ava imsaka, T 279, k. 44, p.
232b, repeats it in regard to the ten ksdntis.
D. The great I ul' maka mastci ipm I ' i, ( i Ii d iin ntidi plain th n impari n i detail
.Vladh. karika and .Vladh. vrlli: maya, p. 45, 443, 449; marici, p. 188. 346. 457, 549: udakacandra and ambucandra, p. 53,
109, 173, dkd , n ' | I | I I p. 334, 340, 419 p
bimba and pratibimba, p. 345, 495, 540 544, 545, 591; nirmdna, P- 334, 552; aldtacakra, p. 173, 219, 238, 419; taimirika
(a person suffering from ophthalmia), p. 30, 75, 261, 274, 445, 523.
Catuhsataka, XIII, v. 325 (ed. Vaidya, p. 108; ed. Bhattacharya, p. 197):
alatacakranuma, i / i imbucandrakaih/
dliurtukantah pratisrutkamancyahhraih samo bhavah..
"Existence is like a burning brand brandished in a circle, a creation, a dream, a magic show . the moon reflected in water,
a fog, an echo in the midst [of the mountains], a mirage, a cloud."
E. The surras from which the Vijnanavadin school is derived have adopted these comparisons:
Lahkavatara, p. 25:
maydsvapnopam i k> ithaii < inasammbhah/
mancidakacandrabhah kena toko bravthi me//
'Tell me how is the world like a magic show, a dream, like [a city] of the gandharvas, like a mirage and the moon
reflected in water?"
flic citations can be infinitely multiplied by referring to D. T. Suzuki's Index to the L aivatai i ' oto 1934, s.v.
Samdhinirmocana, I, v. 4-5, where the example of the magic show is fully developed.
1. Like a magic show (nulycl)
Sastra: These ten comparisons serve to explain empty dharmas (siinyadharma).
Question. - If all dharmas are empty (sunya) like a magic show (mdyd), why are they seen (drsta), heard
(sruta), felt (ghrdta), tasted (dsvadita), touched (sprsta) and known (vijnata)! If they truly did not exist,
how could one see them ... and know them? - Furthermore, if they are seen out of error although they do
not exist, why do we not see sounds (sabda) and hear colors (rupa)7 - If all dharmas are equally empty
(sunya) and non-existent (asat), why are some of them visible (sanidarsand) and others invisible
(anidarsana)? Being empty, dharmas are like a finger (aiiguli) of which the first nail (nakha) is non-
existent and likewise the second. Why is it that we do not see the second nail and we see only the first?"!
Therefore we know that the first nail, which really exists, is visible, whereas the second, which does not
really exist, is invisible.
Answer. - Although the nature of dharmas (dharmalaksana) is empty, we can distinguish visible dharmas
(sanidarsand) and invisible dharmas (anidarsana). Take, for example, magical elephants (hastin) and
horses (asva) and other things of this kind: we know very well that they are not real and yet we see their
color, we hear their sounds; they correspond to the six sense-objects and they are not mixed up one with
the other. In the same way, although dharmas are empty, we can see them, we can hear them, and they are
not confused one with the other.
Dasabhumika, p. 47: Ninth equality:
i \ i i i lyasvapnapratih iprtifi odak in n nanasamata.
12 The Vijhanavadin masters Vasubandhu, Asahga, Hinan tsang, etc., have used these comparisons.
Vimsika, p. 1 : examples of the laimirika, the gandharvanagara and svapna.
I mi i' p . I i / i > \ dluu ii piuitiinirtidtn i i ,i i \ H .in i< n i, ui
like a i.i i hr | i | i n i. th n Hi ii i hi dn m lil ophthalmia ii Till m an object doi iini < i i-
1 bid., p. 40 ///<//; vapnapratisrul ' i
(B nlii |iicnt kno I dgi nil undi i land il> ii ill Iharma ii ill > i magi ho i mira i i dn im in echo, the moon
reflected in water, a creation).
Sutramkara, XI, 29-30, ed. Levi, p. 62:
Lil i i i Ii i ii n i i in ui I i II ii n Ii 1 in
image raid an echo, like the moon reflected in water, and like a creation: this is how the formations are and have been
elucidated by the Buddhas, (he supreme enlightened ones."
Samgraha, p. 122124. where ihc dependent nature (parataiitrasvahliava) is compared successively in nuiya. inanci,
, i in ' ; i In planations given I i'i Mi i i
especially clear.
\'ladhyanta\ ibhahga, p. 22 l ): tatliii inaya svatmany avidyainanc an litistytidyiitiniinii .... gaiulluirvaiHigarapratisrutkadayo
veditaryah.
Siddhi ii hi ii ii ii i i'i i tpl in i'i i il ii Jam i ill i
5 °! Lamotte says: "The meaning of this comparison escapes me."
Thus, in the To niu king (Thensutra) the then asks the Buddha: "O Bhagavat, is [102a] ignorance (avidya)
internal (adhyatmika)!"
"Is it external (bahirdha)!"
"No."
"Is it both internal and external?"
"No."
"O Bhagavat, does this ignorance come from the previous lifetime (purvajanma)T
"No."
"Does it come from the present lifetime (ihajanma) and does it pass to the next one (punarjanma)!"
"No."
"Does this ignorance have an arising (utpdda) and a cessation (nirodha)!"
"No."
"Is there a truly existent dharma that could be called ignorance?"
"No."
Then the then said to the Buddha: "If ignorance is not internal, not external, neither internal nor external, if
it does not pass from the previous lifetime to the present lifetime and from the present lifetime to the
following lifetime, if it does not have a true nature, how can ignorance be the condition (pratyaya) for the
formations (samskara) and so on [for the twelve members of [pratltyasamutpada] up to this accumulation
of this mass of suffering (duhkhaskandhasyotpddahyl Bhagavat, it is as if a tree has no root (mula): how
could it produce a trunk (skandha), knots (granthi), branches (sdkha), leaves (dala), flowers (puspa) and
fruit {phala)T
The Buddha replied: "The nature of dharmas is emptiness. However, worldly people (prthagjana), ignorant
(asrutavat) and without knowledge (ajnanavat), produce all kinds of afflictions (Mesa) in regard to
dharmas, [of which the main one is ignorance]. This affliction is the cause and condition (pratyaya) for
actions of body, speech and mind (kdyavdgmanaskarman) which are the cause of a new existence
(punarjanma). As a result of this existence we experience suffering (duhkha) or pleasure (sukha). Thus, if
the affliction (i.e., ignorance) did not truly exist, there would be no actions of body, speech and mind, and
we would not experience suffering or pleasure. When a magician (mdydkdra) creates all kinds of objects
by magic, are these magical products internal (ddhydtmika) according to you?"
"No."
"Are they external?"
"No."
"Are they both internal and external?"
"No."
"Do they pass from the previous lifetime to the present lifetime and from the present lifetime to the next
lifetime?"
"Do the products of magic have a birth (utpada) and a cessation (nirodha)?"
"No."
"Is there really a dharma that is the product of magic?"
"No."
Then the Buddha said:
"Do you not see, do you not hear, the musical instruments (vddya, turya) produced by magic?"
"Yes, I see them and I hear them."
"Then", continued the Buddha, "if the magic show is empty (sunya), deceptive (vancaka) and without
reality, how can one get musical instruments by magic?
"Bhagavat, although the magic show has no basis, one can hear it and see it."
"Well," said the Buddha, "it is the same for ignorance. It is not internal, it is not external, it is not both,
neither is it neither internal nor external. It does not pass from the past lifetime to the present lifetime nor
from the present lifetime to the next lifetime; it has no true nature, it has neither birth nor cessation.
However, ignorance (avidya) is the cause and condition (hetupratyaya) for the formations (samskdra) and
so on up to the accumulation of this mass of suffering (duhkha-skandhasyotpddah). When the magic show
is over, the products of magic vanish. In the same way, when ignorance is destroyed (ksina), the formations
also are destroyed and so on [for the twelve members of pratltyasamutpada] up to the complete
disappearance of the mass of suffering."
Moreover, this example of the magic show demonstrates that, among beings, all conditioned dharmas
(samskrtadharma) are empty (siinya) and without solidity (adhruva). And so it is said that all the
formations (samskdra) are like a magic show that deceives little children; they depend on causes and
conditions (hetupratyaydpeksa), they are powerless and do not last for a long time
[102b] (acirasthitika). This is why the bodhisattvas regard dharmas as a magic show.
2. Like a mirage (manci)
When the light of the sun (surydloka) arid the w ind (vdyu) stir up the dust (rajas), there is a mirage; in the
desert (kantara), it appears as if there were gazelles (ghotakamrga) and, on seeing them, not knowing, we
assume the presence of water (vari). It is the same for the characteristics of male and female (stnpurusa):
when the sun of the fetters (samyojana) and the afflictions (klesa) has heated up the dust of the formations
(samskdra) and the wind of bad thoughts (mithya ■■■nuintisikurd) swirls in the desert of transmigration
(samsdra), the person without wisdom asserts the characteristics of male and female (stnpurusa). This is a
mirage.
Furthermore, if the sight of the mirage from afar (viprakrsta) calls up the notion of water (vdrisamjnd),
from close up (samnikrsta) this notion disappears. In the same way, when the ignorant person is far away
from the holy doctrine (dryadharma), he is ignorant of the non-existence of self (andtman), the emptiness
of dharmas (dharmasunyatd), and attributes to the aggregates (skandha), the elements (dhatu) and the
bases of consciousness (ayatana) the characteristics of a person, male or female [which are foreign to it].
But when he has come close to the holy dharma, he discovers the true nature of dharmas
(dharmasatyalaksana) and scatters the illusions (vancana) and false notions (mithydsamjnd). This is why
the bodhisattvas regard dharmas as a mirage.
3. Like the moan reflected in water (udakaeandra)
Actually, the moon (candra) is situated in space (akasa) but its reflection (bimba) appears in the water
(udaka). In the same way, 'the moon' of the true Dharma (bhutadharma) is in 'the space' of suchness
(dharmata) and the peak of existence (bhutakoti), but its 'reflection' - the wrong notions of 'me' and 'mine'
(atmatmiyanimitta) - appear in the 'water' of the minds of fools (balacitta), gods or men. This is why
[dharmas] are like the moon reflected in water.
Furthermore, when a little child (balaka) sees the moon reflected in the water, he is happy and wants to
grab it, but the adults who see it make fun of him. In the same way, the ignorant person, seeing his body,
believes in the existence of a personal self (atman): lacking true knowledge, he sees all kinds of dharmas
and, having seen them, he is happy and wants to grasp (udgrhnati) the characteristics of male or female
(stnpurusa), etc.; but the aryas who have found the Path make fun of him. A stanza says:
Like the moon reflected in water, like the water of a mirage,
Like attainments in a dream, death and birth are like that.
The person who wants to really secure them
Is a fool whom the aryas ridicule.
Finally, it is in clear water that one sees the reflection of the moon; when the water is disturbed, the
reflection vanishes. In the same way, it is in the pure water of an ignorant mind (avidydcitta) that the pride
of self (asmimdna) and the reflections of the fetters (samyojana) appear; but when the stick of wisdom
(prajnddanda) stirs up the water of the mind, one no longer sees the self or the other reflections of the
fetters. This is why the bodhisattvas think that dharmas are like the moon reflected in water.
4 Like \/hi< c (lUilsn)
Space is just a name {ndmamdtra) and not a real dharma."^ Space is invisible (adrsya) but, looking at it
from afar, the eye perceives a light blue color. In the same way, dharmas are empty (sunya) and non-
existent (asat): the person who is still far away from pure true wisdom (andsravasatyaprajnd) does not
discover its true nature (satyalaksana) but sees in it atman, men (pums) and women (stri), houses (grha)
and cities (nagard), all kinds of different things (dravya), and his mind clings (abhinivisate) to them. When
a little child (bdlaka) looks at the blue sky, he says that he sees a real color (varna); but those who fly up
very high and come closer [to the sky] see nothing; it is when we look at it from a distance that we [102c]
assert that we see a blue color. It is the same for dharmas. This is why the sutra says that they are like
space.
Moreover, space is always pure by nature (svabhdvavisuddha), but when it is overcast and covered [by
clouds], people say that it is impure (avisuddlia). In the same way, the dharmas are always pure by nature,
but when they are obscured by desire (rdga), hatred (dvesa) and delusion (mohd), people declare them to
be impure. Some stanzas say:
During the summer months (grisma), there is thunder, lightning and rain,
Dark clouds cover the sky, the weather is not calm;
In the same way, in ignorant ordinary people (prthagjana),
All sorts of afflictions (Mesa) cover over the mind.
In a wintry (hemanta) sky, sometimes the sun shines,
But usually it is dark and clouds cover it over.
In the same way, the person who has acquired the first or second fruit?*"
Is still darkened by the defilements of desire.
In a spring (vasanta ) sk\ , the sun is about to shine forth,
But is still covered by dark clouds.
582 Cf. the refutation of space in Madh. vrtti. p. 129-130.
583 The srohn u It in I 111 pli a
In the same say, in the person who has renounced desire (vttardga) and has acquired the third fruit, 4
Residues of ignorance and pride still hide the mind.
In autumn (sarad), the sun is not covered by clouds,
The sky is pure like the water of the oceans.
Having accomplished what had to be done (krtakrtya), being of an immaculate mind,"^
The arhat also is completely pure.
Moreover, space is without beginning, middle or end (apurvamadhyacarama). It is the same for dharmas.
In the Mahayana, the Buddha said to Siu p'ou t'i (Subhuti): "Space is beginningless, without middle and
without end; and it is the same with dharmas." This text should be cited in full. This is why it is said that
dharmas are like space.
Question. - Space is a truly existent dharma. Why? If space were not a real dharma, it would not have the
activity (kdritra) of rising up or lowering, going or coming, bending or spreading out, leaving or entering,
etc., since it would not have the room in which to move.
Answer. - i) If space were a truly existent dharma, it should have an abode (adhisthdna, clspada). Why?
Because without an abode, there are no dharmas. If space resides in holes (cfc'<ira), ""space would reside
in space; therefore space does not reside in cavities. If it resided in any reality whatsoever, this abode
would be real (bhuta) and not empty (sunya) and thus space would be unable to reside there and would
have nothing to accommodate it.
ii) Moreover, you say that space is the place of abiding (adhisthdna), but in a stone wall (sailabhitti) which
truly exists, there is no place of abiding. If there is no place of abiding, there is no space. Since space has
no abode, there is no space.
Hi) Finally, space does not exist because it has no specific characteristic (laksana).' Each dharma has its
own characteristic and it is because of this characteristic that we recognize its existence. Thus earth
(prthivi) has solidity (khakkhatatva) as its characteristic; water (ap-), humidity (dravatva); fire (tejas), heat
5 ° 4 The anagamipliahi.
585 The arhatphala.
586 p or mc Sarvasivadin-Vaibhasikas, space is the hole, opening, or the void (chid i i Ihatvaki m) it is light
(aloka) and darkness (tamas). For the Sautrantikas, it is just the absence of a resisting body
(sapratighadi aw <hdvam I See lefeiences in Kosa, I, p. 49-50.
^°' This paragraph and the following one are according to the commentary of the Madh. karikas, V, 1-2, p. 129-130:
an vidyuti nci rvam e kramata '/ i tarn "Space does not exist prior to the nature of space
(namely, the absence of an obstacle: aiiararana), for it would be without nature if it existed prior to its nature. - A
substance without nature does not exist anywhere. Since a substance without nature does not exist, to what would this
nature apply?"
(usnatva); wind iyayu), movement (rra«fl?va); ;> °°consciousness (vijndna), intellection (vijriaptitva);
wisdom iprajnd), insight (bodhana); nirvana, cessation (uccheda). Not having such a characteristic, space
does not exist.
Question. - Space has a characteristic, but as you do not cognize it, you say [103a] that it does not exist.
The characteristic of space is absence of rupa (matter).
Answer. - That is not correct. Absence of riipa means elimination of matter, but that is not a separate
dharma any more than the extinguishing of a lamp (dipd) is not a distinct dharma. This is why space has no
self- nature.
Moreover, space does not exist. Why? You speak of riipa by saying that the absence of rupa is the self-
nature of space; if that were so, insofar as rupa does not arise, the specific nature of space does not exist.
Finally, you say that rupa is an impermanent dharma (anitya), but that space is a permanent (nitya) dharma.
Before riipa existed, there should have therefore been a dharma called space, since it is eternal. If rupa is
not absent, the self-nature of space does not exist, and if this nature does not exist, space does not exist
either. This is why space is a mere name without any reality. The dharmas are also like space; they are
mere names without any reality. Consequently, the bodhisattvas believe that dharmas are like space.
.^ /.;/.. Kin k\ lii> iri Kill'. iiiIkk'h
In a narrow valley, a deep gorge or an empty house, when a sound (sabdd) or a noise is made, from this
sound [that is produced] another sound arises that is called an echo. The ignorant person thinks that there is
somebody who is repeating his words, but the wise person knows that the echo is not due to a third person
and that it is solely by a reverberation of the sound (sabdasparsa) that there is anew sound called an echo.
The echo is empty (siinya) of reality but it is able to deceive the ear organ (srotrendriya). In the same way,
when a person is about to speak, there is a wind (vayu) in his mouth (mukha) called Yeou t'o na (udana)
that passes to the nostrils (ndbhi); when it strikes the nostrils, an echo is produced and at the moment that it
comes out, it strikes in seven places and subsides. That is language (abhilapa). Some stanzas say:
The wind called udana
Strikes the nostrils and rises up;
This wind then strikes in seven places:
The nape of the neck, the gums, the teeth and the lips,
The tongue, the throat and the chest.
Thus language is produced.
The fool does not understand that;
588 For the nature of the four elements, cf. Majjhima, III, p. 240-241; Pitrputrasamagamasutra, cited i
Siksasamuccaya, p. 245; Mahavyutpatti, no, 1842-1843; Kosa, I, p. 22.
Hesitant, obstinate, he produces dvesa and moha.
The person endowed with wisdom
Is not worried, does not cling,
And does not commit any mistake;
He adheres solely to the [true] nature of dharmas.
Bending and staying straight, bending and straightening up,
[The sound] that comes and goes manifests the language.
There is no agent there.
This [language] is a magic show.
How would anyone know
That this skeleton, this bundle of nerves,
Would be able to produce language
Like molten metal ejects water?
[103b] This is why the bodhisattvas regard dharmas as an echo.
6. Like a city of the gandharvas
When the sun rises, we see a city (nagara) of buildings with stories"^ {kutagara), palaces (rajakula),
with people coming in and going out. The higher the sun rises, the more indistinct this city becomes; it is
just an optical illusion without any reality. This is what is called a city of the gandharvas. People who have
never before seen it and who discover it some morning in the east believe in its reality and hurry towards it;
but the closer they come, the more unclear it becomes and when the sun is high, it disappears. Tormented
by hunger and thirst (ksutpipasa), the people who perceive a haze like a herd of gazelles (ghotakamrga)
believe in the presence of water and hasten towards it, but the closer they come, the more the illusion
becomes blurred. Exhausted, worn out, they come to a high mountain or a narrow valley; they utter cries
and groans and the echo replies to them; they believe in the presence of inhabitants and try to find them,
but they tire themselves out in vain and find nothing. Finally, when they have reflected and understood,
their illusion disappears. In the same way, the ignorant man thinks he sees an atman and dharmas in the
aggregates (skandha), the elements (dhdtu) and the bases of consciousness (ayatand) which are empty
(siinya) of any reality. Prey to desire (rdga), anger {dvesa) and obstinacy (cittdbhinivesa), they wander in
the four directions to satisfy their desire. Lost and deceived, they are plunged into poverty and misery. But
when they have recognized the non-existence of the atman and real dharmas by means of wisdom (prajnd),
their mistake (vipaiya.su) disappears.
5 °" Lamottc translates kutagara as 'etage'. Monicr-Williams gives 'an upper room, apartment on the top of a house'.
Furthermore, the city of the gandharvas is not a city; it is the mind of the person who sees it as such. In the
same way, fools (bald) conceive of that which is not a body as a body (kaya) and as a mind (citta) that
which is not a mind.
Question. - A single example would suffice in understanding; why multiply the comparisons (upamdna) in
this way?
Answer. - i) We have already answered this question [by saying] that the Mahayana is like the waters of
the ocean and it contains absolutely all dharmas. Since the Mahayana multiplies the arguments
(hetupratyaya), the large number of comparisons is not a fault.
ii) Moreover, the bodhisattvas have profound and sharp knowledge (jndna); it is by means of all kinds of
teachings (dharmaparydyd), reasonings (hetupraydya) and comparisons (upamdna) that they eliminate
dharmas. In order that people should understand, it is necessary to multiply the examples.
iii) Finally, in the texts of the sravakas, we never find the example of the city of the gandharvas, "" but
there are all kinds of other comparisons to illustrate impermanence (anityatd). [For example, a sutra says]:
"Form (rupa) is like a ball of foam (phenapindd); feeling (vedand) like a water bubble (budbudha);
perception (samjnd) like a mirage (marici), volition (samskdra) like the trunk of a banana tree
(kadaliskandha) n iousiu (viji una) like a magic show (mdya) and a magic net (mdydjdla)."^ In
the sutras, these are the comparisons used to illustrate emptiness. Since the city of the gandharvas is a
different comparison, it is mentioned here.
Question. - In the sravaka texts, the body (kaya) is compared to a cityj^^why is the example of the city of
the gandharvas given here?
590 Actually, the woid / \ d notappi n in the Pali-English Dictionary of Rhys Davids-Stcde.
^"l Stanza from the Phcnasutta:
a. In Pali, in Samyutta, III, p. 142; Cullaniddesa, p. 680: i hulupama ....
inayupamanca \ i <^ diccahandhuna.
It is commented on in the Visuddhimagga, p. 479 as follows: phenapindo viya rupam .... mdya viva vinrianani .
vai'icakato.
Ill Sanskrit, ill Yladh. vrtti, p. 41 ;
c. In Tibetan m \\ Jit itara, ] i rdos pa hdra i h stsal to
d. In Chinese, in Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 265), k. 10, p. 69al8-20; Wou yin p'i yu king, T 105, p. 501M8-20; Chouei mo so
p'iao king, T 106, p. 502al6-18.
592 For example, Samyutta, IV, p.195-195 ( = Tsa a han, T 99, no. 1 175, k.43, p. 315b-316a): Seyyathapi bhikkhu ranno
paccaiitiinain nagaram dailiuddapain saininaditthiya pe saininasainadhissa ti.
[Imagine, O monk, a border city of some king, with solid foundations, with walls and solid towers, having six gates.
There is a wise gate-keeper, careful and intelligent, who turns away certain visitors and allows others to enter. Having
come from the east, a pair of express messengers speak to the gate-keeper: "Hey, man! Where is the lord of this city?"
And the gatc-kccpcr answers: "Gentlemen, he is in the square [within the city]." Then Ihc pair of express messengers give
the lord of the city a true message and then go back by the same road they came. Two other pairs of express messengers.
coming from the west and the north, do the same.
Answer. - In the example of the city used by the sravakas, the subject of comparison exists as such
(dravyasat), whereas the city has merely nominal existence (prajnaptisai). But in the city of the
gandharvas, the subject of comparison itself is non-existent; it is like the burning brand flourished in a
circle (alatacakray^ that deceives the human eye. In the sravaka texts, the example of the city is used
only to refute the atman. Here we use the example of the city of the gandharvas so that the bodhisattvas of
keen faculties (tiksnendriya) penetrate the emptiness of dharmas deeply, which is why these are compared
to a city of the gandharvas.
I have given you, O monk, a parable and here is the meaning of it:
The city, O monk, signifies the body composed of the (our great elements, resulting from a father and a mother, nourished
I 5 i incl li ; undei < in ten il i a md t< n ci ion di il\ n ind disintegrating.
The six gates, O monk, signify the six inner bases of consciousness (the eye organs, the car organ, etc.).
The gate-keeper, O monk, signifies attentiveness.
I hi pail if ( pi mi i u i i i in ui' ' iiii\ ilium aid concentration,
The lord of the city , monk, signifies consciousness.
The square m the inner city, O monk, signifies ihc four great elements, earth, water, fire and wind.
The true message, O monk, signifies nirvana.
The road on which to depart, O monk, signifies the noble eight fold Path, namely, right view and the rest, ami right
The Buddha did not say any more about the lord of the city, but we know from Buddhaghosa (Sarattha, III, P. 60 sq.) that
it is about a dissolute young prince whom the two messengers lead back to the right path.
- In the Tsa a han, p. 315, the parable is slightly different and the kali version has contaminated the interpretation, w hich
follows: "Imagine there is a city in a border land, having w ell constructed w ails, solid gates and smooth roads. At the four
gates of the city there are four guards; they are intelligent, wise, and know those who enter and those who depart. In this
city there is a courtyard where the lord of the city is seated. When the messenger from the cast arrives, lie asks the guard
where the lord of the city is, and the guard answers: "The lord is inside the city sitting in the courtyard." Then this
messenger goes to the lord of the city, gets his orders and returns by the same road. The messengers from the south, west
and north do the same and each returns to their place of departure.
The Buddha says to the monk: I have told you a parable, now I will explain its meaning: Ihc city is the person's body,
coarse matter... the well-constructed walls are the right vi i < > i I I he smooth roads are the six inner bases of
consciousness i ' / ui) The foui gates aie the foui abodes of consciousne (vi/i'iaii, i;iri). The four
guards arc the four foundations of mindfulness (sinrtyupasthana). The lord of the city is consciousness (vijiltniti) and [the
other] i' ii mi oi ttachment (upwlai iska ' i I In mi cngci ire i lmi eid -in mpl lion (i id die ko i -
sainatluivipasyaiia in place oi tclicng kouan). The true message is the foui absolute tiuth i i t\ hii h
probably should be corrected to aryasatya). 1 he path of departure is the eight-fold noble Path.
We may notice that the true message, symbolic of the four truths does not appear in the Chinese version, bul rather
appears in (he interpretation which i >ll In n bon > i I no i iin Pali text i i tin m u in mi iiinii iti to
the lord of the city the yathabhuta vacana. The text of the Tsa a han has thus been contaminated by the Pali version.
-^ The example of the burning brand flourished in a circle which gives the illusion of a ring of fire (aiauicakra) is not
found in ihc Pali scriptures but is used by the Madhyamaka: cf. Madh. vritti, p. 173, 219, 238, 49; Catuhsataka, v. 325. -
It is also found in the Lahkavatara, p. 9, 42, 9, 106, 287, and the Kosa, I, p. 93,; III, p. 212; V, p. 23. The Kosavyakhya
I In i i I II c c i lli i i i,>i 1 1 ucal texts also
use this comparison.
7. Like a dream (svapna)
[103c] There is no reality in a dream but nevertheless we believe in the reality of the things seen in a
dream. After waking up, we recognize the falsity of the dream and we smile at ourselves. In the same way,
the person deep in the sleep of the fetters (samyojananidra) clings (abhinivisate) to the things that do not
exist; but when he has found the Path, at the moment of enlightenment, he understands that there is no
reality and laughs at himself. This is why it is said: like in a dream.
Moreover, by the power of sleep (nidrdbala), the dreamer sees something there where there is nothing. In
the same way, by the power of the sleep of ignorance (avidydnidrd), a person believes in the existence of
all kinds of things that do not exist, e.g., 'me' and 'mine' (dtmdtmiya), male and female, etc.
Moreover, in a dream, we enjoy ourselves although there is nothing enjoyable there; we are irritated
although there is nothing irritating there; we are frightened although there is nothing to be afraid of there.
In the same way, beings of the threefold world {traidhdtukasattva), in the sleep of ignorance, are irritated
although there is nothing irritating, enjoy themselves although there is nothing enjoyable, and frightened
although there is nothing to be afraid of.
Finally, there are five types of dreams: i) In the case of physical unbalance (kayavaisamya), when the hot
vapors predominate, one dreams a lot, one sees fire (tejas), yellow {pita) and red (lohita) ; ii) when the cold
vapors predominate, one sees especially water (ap-) and white (avadata); Hi) when the windy vapors
predominate, one sees particularly flights [of birds] and black (krsna); iv) when one has thought a lot
[during the day] and reflected well on what one has seen and heard (drstasruta), one sees all of that again
in dream; v) finally, the gods send dreams to teach about future events. These five types of dreams are all
without reality; they are false visions. - It is the same for people [who are awake]: beings who are in the
five destinies (gati) see the atman in four ways because of their material visions: i) the form aggregate
(riipaskandha) is the atman: ii) form (rupa) belongs to the self, to the 'me' (dtmiya); Hi) in the atman, there
is rupa. iv) in riipa, there is atman.
What they say here about rupa they also apply to feeling (vedand), perception (samjnd), the formations
(samskdra) and consciousness (vijndna): this makes 4 x 5 = 20 ways [of considering atman]. But when
they have found the Path and true wisdom has awakened them, they know that [this so-called atman] has
no reality.
Question. - You should not say that the dream has no reality. Why? Because every mind depends on causes
and conditions (hetupratyaya) in order to be produced and, in the dream, consciousness (vijndna) has all
sorts of conditions (pratyaya). Without these conditions, how could consciousness arise?
Answer. - It's nothing of the sort: in dream, we see something although we should not see it. We see, for
example, a human head (manusyasiras) with horns (visdna) or dead bodies flying through space (akasa).
Actually, people do not have horns and dead bodies do not fly. Thus the dream has no reality.
Question. - But human heads really exist and in addition, horns also exist; it is by a mental confusion
(cittamoha) that we see a human head with horns. There really is space (akasa) and there really are beings
that fly; it is by mental confusion that we see dead bodies that fly. It is not on account of that that the dream
has no reality.
Answer. - Even though there are truly human heads and even though there are truly horns, a human head
with horns is nothing but a false vision.
Question. - The universe (lokadhatu) is vast and, in the course of previous lifetimes (purvajanma), the
causes and conditions [that determine these consciousnesses] have been varied. There may be strange lands
(desantara) where the heads of people grow horns, where the people have but one hand or one foot, or
where they are but one foot tall, or where they have nine heads. What is strange about humans having
horns?
Answer. - It is possible that in other lands people may have horns; but in a dream, one sees only what one
knows in this very land where 'people with horns' do not occur.
Moreover, some see in dreams the limits of space (akasa) or the limits of the directions (dis) [104a] and of
time (kdla). How are such things true? In what place could space, directions and time be absent? This is
why in a dream we see as existent things that do not exist.
You were asking how consciousness could be produced in the absence of conditions (pratyayd). Even
though the conditions [consisting of] the five sense objects were lacking, the conditions [necessary for the
production] of dharmas {dharmapratyaya) arise by the efficacy (balapravrtti) of thinking (manasikara)
and of the mind. If somebody tells you about a man with two heads, this statement would produce [in you]
a concept (sarnjna) and, in a dream, you will see as existent that which does not exist. It is the same for the
dharmas: they are non-existent and nevertheless they are seen (drsta), heard (snila) and cognized (vijndta).
A stanza says:
All dharmas
Are like
A dream, a magic show
A city of the gandharvas.
This is why the bodhisattvas believe that dharmas are like a dream.
8. Like a shadow (chdyd)
A shadow is visible but cannot be grasped. It is the same for dharmas: the organs (indriya) and the sense
objects are seen (drsta), heard (sruta), cognized (vijndta) and felt (mata), but their reality is ungraspable. A
stanza says:
True wisdom,
Ungraspable on all four sides,
Cannot be touched
Like a blazing infemo.
Dharmas are impregnable,
They must not be grasped.
Moreover, it is necessary that light be intercepted so that the shadow appears: without this interception, the
shadow would be absent. In the same way, it is necessary that the fetters (samyojana) and the afflictions
(Mesa) hide the light of correct seeing (samyagdrsti) so that the shadow of the atman and of dharmas
appear.
Moreover, the shadow walks when the person walks, the shadow moves when the person moves, the
shadow stops when the person stops. In the same way, the shadow of good or bad actions
(kusalcikusalakarman) moves when the past existence (purvajanma) moves, but it remains stationary when
the present existence (ihajanma) is stationary because the retribution of actions (karmavipaka) has not
been cut. When the sins (dpatti) and merits (punya) are ripe (paripakva), the shadow disappears. Some
stanzas say:
Action follows [its perpetrator] through the air,
It pursues him among the rocks,
It accompanies him in the depths of the earth,
It enters the waters of the ocean with him,
It pursues him always and everywhere:
The shadow of actions is indissoluble.
This is why dharmas are like a shadow.
Finally, the shadow is empty (sunyd), non-existent (asat); one may search hard for its reality but one can
never find it. Similarly, all dharmas are empty and without reality.
Question. - It is not true that the shadow is empty and without reality. Why? It is said in the A p'i fan
(Abhidharma): "What is called 'visible'? Blue (nila), yellow {pita), red (lohita), white (avaddta), black
(krsna), deep red, light blue, light (dloka) and shadow (chdyd). Moreover, bodily action (kdyakarman) and
the three kinds of derived matter (updddyarupa) are called 'visible' or rupdyatana." Why do you say that
the shadow does not exist? Furthermore, the shadow truly exists because it has causes and conditions
(hetupratyaya): its cause is the tree (vrksa); its condition is light (dloka); when these two principal [factors]
come together, the shadow is produced. Why do you say that it does not exist? If there is no shadow, the
other dharmas that also possess causes and conditions would not exist either. - Finally, [104b] this shadow
has a visible color. Long (dirgha) or short (krasva), big (mahai) or small (alpa), thick (sthula) or thin
(suksma), crooked (kutila) or straight (riju); when the shape (samsthdna) moves, the shadow also moves.
All of that is visible. This is why the shadow must exist.
Answer. - The shadow is empty (sunyd) and non-existent (asat). You quote a passage from the
Abhidharma, but the interpretation that you give it is that of a person. People often mistreat the meaning of
scriptural texts {dharmapraydya) and take their inventions as reality. Thus it is said in the P'i p'o cha
(Vibhasa): "The atoms (paramanu) are subtle, indestructible and incombustible; therefore they are
eternal. "^"4 And again, "The dharmas of the three times pass from the future (anclgata) lo the present
(pratyutpanna), and from the present to the past (atTta) without deteriorating."^"^ : these texts favor
eternalism (sasvata). on the other hand, it is also said:
" Conditioned dharmas (samskrtadharma), arising and perishing ever anew, do not last (asthitika)."^®
This text favors nihilism (uccheda). Why? Because [that which is conditioned] no longer exists after
having existed. Thus in the Abhidharma, there are all sorts of statements that contradict the words of the
Buddha. We cannot resort to it to establish that the shadow is a type of material dharma (rupadharma).
When a rupadharma arises, it necessarily has a smell (gandha), a taste (rasa), tangibility (sprastavya), etc.
This is not the case for the shadow. Therefore it does not exist. The jug (ghata), for example, is cognized
by two organs (indriya), the eye organ (caksurindriya) and the organ of touch (kayendriya). If the shadow
existed, it should be cognized by these two organs. But that is not the case and, consequently, the shadow
has no true substance. It is but a 'trompe-oeuil (caksurvancana). If one takes a burning brand and
flourishes it rapidly in a circle, one draws a circle in the air with it, but this circle has no reality. Similarly,
the shadow has no real substance. If it were a true substance, it could be destroyed or made to disappear,
hut as long as its screen (samsthana) is intact, the shadow is indestructible. This is why it is empty. Finally,
since it depends on a screen (samsthanam apeksate) and has no independence (aisvarya), the shadow is
empty. But even though it is empty, its notion exists and the eye sees it. This is why dharmas are compared
to a shadow.
9. Like a reflection (himha) in a mirror
The reflection in the mirror is not produced by the mirror (adarsa), nor by the face (vaktra), nor by the
person holding the mirror (adarsadhard), nor by itself (svatah); but it is not without causes and conditions
(hetupratyaya)597
594 P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 75, p. 389c26.
- > "- ) Ibid., k. 76, p. 303al4-15, referring so as to criticize the opinion of the Darstantikas and Vibhajyavadins: "The
lainslatma enter from the future into the present and from the present thc\ cntci into the past."
596 Ibid, k 76, p. 394a29-394b2 (tr. Poussin, La controverse du temps, MCG, V, 1936-37, p. 14): "True dharmas
(saddhanna), arisen ijuia), existent (hliuta), created (krtti '!). conditioned (sainskrta), having an effect (sakaraiuya),
produced in dependen i ( iti imut} i ) arc by their nature pen habl I vyad rmari) doomed to disappear
(vv< i i , objci i d i ( hmcnl i mm), doomed to destuun in i > idharman), doomed to
deterioration (nasyanadlHirmaka). That these dharmas do not deteriorate is out of the question."
597 This is the canonical doctrine; cf. Seldsutta in Samyutta, I, p. 134; Tsa a han, T 99 (no, 1203), k. 45, p. 327b-c; T 100
(no. 219), k. 12, p. 455a: iiayidam at irujjliati
ICosa, III. p. 34-36, denies tin: real existence of the reflection because two things do not exist in tin: same place, because
there is no series, because it arises from two causes.
i) Why is it not produced by the mirror? Because there is no reflection if the face does not come in front of
the mirror. Thus it is not produced by the mirror, ii) Why is it not produced by the face? Because there is
no reflection without the mirror. Hi) Why is it not produced by the person holding the mirror? Because
there is no reflection without mirror or face, iv) Why is it not produced by itself? Because in the absence of
the mirror and the face, there is no reflection. To be produced, the reflection depends (apeksate) on the
mirror and the face. Thus the reflection is not produced by itself. How is it not lacking causes and
conditions? If it were without causes and conditions, it would exist eternally. If it existed eternally, it
would be produced even in the absence of the mirror and the face. Thus it is not without causes and
conditions.
It is the same for the dharmas: they are not produced by themselves (svatah), nor by another (paratah), nor
by both together (ubhayatah); but they are not without causes and conditions.^""
i) Why are they not produced by themselves? They are not produced by themselves because the atman does
not exist, because all dharmas come from causes and are not sovereign and because dharmas depend
(apeksante) on causes and conditions, ii) They are not produced by another. [104c] If they do not
themselves exist, their neighbor would not exist either. Creation by another would suppress the efficacious
role played by sins and merits (papapunyabala). Creation by another is of two types, good (kusala) or bad
(akusala); the good must produce happiness (sukha), the bad must produce unhappiness (duhkha). If there
is a mixture of bad and good, what is the cause and condition from which the happiness arises and what is
the cause and condition from which the unhappiness arises? If both are absent, the self and other are
likewise absent. Hi) If happiness and unhappiness arise without causes and conditions, the person would be
eternally happy and free of all unhappiness. If there is neither cause nor conditions, the person could not
realize the cause of happiness or escape the cause of unhappiness. All dharmas are necessarily from causes
and conditions. It is stupid to ignore that. Thus a person gets fire (agni) from wood (dani), water (udaka)
from earth (prthivi), and wind (anila) from a fan (yijana). Each of these things has its causes and
conditions. The causes and conditions of this mass of unhappiness and happiness are the following: the
actions (karman) of the past lifetime (purvajanma) are the causes and the good or bad behavior
(sucaritaduscarita) of the present lifetime (ihajanma) are the conditions from which suffering and
happiness come. These are the different causes and conditions of suffering and happiness. In truth, there is
• > "° This is the essence of the Nagarjunian doctrine given in the first stanza of the Madh. karika (Madh, vrtti, p. 12;
Tchong louen, T 1564, k. 1., p. 2h):
iia svato napi part/to na dvahliyam itapy alietutalj.
utpaiiiia jatu ridyante hiiinavah kvacana kc ctniti,,
"Never, anywhere in any case, do substances exist thai are born from themselves, or from another, or from both, or
without cause."
In conformity with this point of the initial argument, causality by way of itself (svakrtatva) where the identity of cause
and effect has been refuted in Madh. vrtti, p. 13 and Madh. avatara, p. 82 (tr. Lav.. Yluscon, 1910, p. 280): causality by
way of another (parakrtva), in Madh. vrtti, p. 36 and 78; combined causality {uhiiayakrtatra) in Vladh. vrtti, p. 38 and
233: absence of any causality Uihetusamutpaimatva) in Madh, vrtti, p. 38, 182: Madh, avatara, p. 207 (tr. Lav., Musscon,
1912, p. 260).
no agent (kdraka) or any enjoyer (vedaka). The five aggregates (pancaskandha) are without activity (kriyd)
or enjoyment (vedand). The ignorant person who finds happiness enjoys it and clings to it; if he finds
unhappiness, he feels irritation; when his happiness disappears, he tries to recover it.
A child, seeing [its] reflection (bimba) in a mirror (ddarha), is happy and becomes infatuated with it; but
when this well-loved reflection has disappeared, the child breaks the mirror to try to recover it; wise people
make fun of it. In the same way, those who, having lost their happiness, try to regain it, are mocked by the
aryas who have found the Path. This is why dharmas are like a reflection in a mirror.
Moreover, the reflection in a mirror is truly empty (sunya), without arising (utpdda), without cessation
(nirodha), but it deceives the eyes of fools {bald). In the same way, dharmas are empty, without arising,
without cessation, but they deceive the eyes of worldly people (prthagjana).
Question. - The reflection in the mirror is the result of causes and conditions. If there is a face, a mirror, a
person holding the mirror and a light, provided these causes are brought together, the reflection is
produced. Thus the reflection is both cause (hetu) and result (phala). Why do you say then that it is empty
of reality, without arising or cessation?
Answer. - Being the result of causes and conditions, the reflection is not independent; therefore it is empty
(sunya). A truly existent dharma cannot be the result of causes and conditions. Why? If the cause (kdrana)
pre-exists in the cause, there is no effect (kdrya); if the cause does not pre-exist in the cause, there is no
result either. Thus, if cream (dadhi) pre-exists in milk (ksira), the milk is not the cause of the cream, for the
cream pre-exists. If the cream does not pre-exist in the milk, everything would happen as in water (udaka)
where there is no cream: the milk is not the cause of the cream. If the cream existed without cause, why
would water not produce cream?599 jf the milk is the cause of the cream, the milk, which itself is not
independent, also comes from a cause; it derives its origin from the cow (go); [105a] the cow takes its
origin from wati i I i ah i) ind gra (/ na) and thus there are infinite (ananta) causes. This is why it
cannot be said that the result (kdrya) exists (bhavati) in the cause (kdrana), or that it does not exist (na
bhavati) in the cause, or that it both exists and does not exist (bhavati ca na bhavati ca), or that it neither
exists nor does not exist (naiva bhavati na na bhavati) in the cause. Dharmas resulting from causes and
conditions (prafftyasamutpanna) do not have self- nature (svabhdva). They are like a reflection in a mirror.
Some stanzas say:
If dharmas come from causes and conditions,
'"" According to Nagarjuna, modification (an) ithdtva) oi subsl mces is impossible. He establishes this thesis (Madh,
vrtti, p. 242) in the following way:
tasya ced anyatlwhliavali ksirain era .... hhavaiuiin prasetsyatiti nayuktam etat.
"If the modification [of substances] were possible, milk would be identical w ith cream. Our adversary w ill say that it is by
the disappearance of (he state 'milk' that the state 'cream' is produced. But if our adversary does not want the milk to be
identical with the cream because they are opposite to one another, it will follow that the cream can arise from anything
that is not milk. But how is that? Could the cream arise from water? It is therefore unreasonable to chum that the cream
comes from that which is differenl from it. Since She modification of substances is impossible, it is wrong to claim that
substances have an essence because changes are observed."
They are truly empty of self-nature;
If these dharmas were not empty.
They would not be the result of causes and conditions.
It is like reflections in a mirror;
They do not come from the mirror, nor from the face,
Nor from the person who holds the mirror,
Nor from themselves; but they are not without cause.
[Dharmas] are neither existent nor non-existent,
Not both existent and non-existent:
To refuse to accept these theses
Is what is called the Middle Way.
That is why dharmas are like the reflection in the mirror.
10. Lik i i ph u i i) i u a 'Hi 1 1 i, is i
The fourteen minds of metamorphosis {nirmdnacitta) are: (1-2) In the first dhyana, two minds, viz. that of
kamadhatu and that of the first dhyana; (3-5) In the second dhyana, three minds, viz., that of kamadhatu,
that of the first dhyana and that of the second dhyana; (6-9) In the third dhyana, four minds, viz., that of
kamadhatu and those of the first, second and third dhyanas; (10-14) In the fourth dhyana, five minds, viz.,
that of kamadhatu and those of the first, second, third and fourth dhyanas. 0"
These fourteen minds of metamorphosis accomplish eight kinds of nirmana: (1) reducing to the size of an
atom (paramanu), (2) enlarging to the point of filling up space (dkdsa). (3) becoming as light as the feather
of a crane (sarasaloman), (4) exercising sovereignty (vasitvakarana) by growing bigger, shrinking,
lengthening, narrowing, etc., (5) possessing the Indrabala, the power that surpasses that of humans, (6)
being far distant and coming close, (7) making the earth shake (kampana), (8) obtaining whatever one
desires: being single and becoming many (eko bhutva bahudhd bhavati), being many and becoming single
(bahudhd bhutva eko bhavati), passing through stone walls (tirah kuclyam gacchati). walking on water
(udake gacchati), walking in space (dkdse kramati), touching the sun and the moon with one's hand
(suryacandramasau pdnind dmdrsti), transforming the four great elements, i.e., changing earth (prthivi)
into water (ap-) and water into earth, fire (tejas) into wind and wind (vdyu) into fire, stone (saila) into gold
and gold (suvarna) into stone. 601
600 fjjg f our teen nirmanacittas are distributed in the four dhyanas according to the following principle: "The
iiinnauacitta, the result of a certain dhyana, is the ground of thai particular dhyana or of a lower ground." See Kosa, VII,
p. 115-116.
601 The Mpps seems to have artificially combined a list of 16 mahdrddhis with a list of 7 abhijndkai man
There are four other kinds of nirmana: (1) In the realm of desire (kdmadhdtu), substances (dravyct) can be
transformed by means of herbs (osadh i) preciou >bj I < i nadi n va) and magical means; (2) beings
endowed with the superknowledges {abhijna) can transform substances by their magical power
(rddhibala); (3) the devas, nagas, asuras, etc., can transform substances by means of the power of
retribution (vipdkabala) of their [previous] lifetimes; (4) beings rewarded in a lifetime in the form realm
(rupadhdtu) can transform substances by the power of concentration {samadhibala)P"2
a. The list of the 16 mat I urs in imgraha, ] 1 Bodh bhumi, p 58-63 It mentions the powers of
mil l! rlh shal i n< 1), of transfi nun i valai no. 5), ol ltrating and dcvclopii
(samksepaprathana, no. 7), which correspond to nos. 7, 8 sub fine, 1 and 2, of our list.
b. The list ol i n mentioned in m ll n il i I mih ! Ii ii| m (1 ha. 1, ] mi ml II
p. 121; Anguli ira, 1, p. 170) md il inskrit vci ion ippi n in I in n im iti p. 8 ICosavyal h\ i, p. 65- I ill i ilp itti
no. 215-223, 227.
Pali , ion: So nil iddliivivluui ca hoti: 1 ) l eko pi huh hi hti hoti. 3) uh
eko hoti. 4) avihliavdiii tirohharain /dpi pdccdiiuhhotij . 5) tirokudddin tiropakrarn tiropahhatain asajjainaiio gacchati
seyyatha pi dkd.se. 6) pathavTyd pi iimmu • tin mi < n karoti seyyatha pi udake. 7) udake pi abijjama.no gacchati
seyyathdpipathaviyam. 8) dkas< ' kuno 9) .... 10) .... 11) ime pi candimasuriye
evain inahaiiiihhare pauiua pariiiiajjati vara Brahiiialoka pi kayeua va sanivatteti.
Sanskrit Version: So 'iiekaridhain rddliivid/iini pratyaiiuhhavati: 1) prtliivim upi kampayati. 2) eko 'pi hliutva hahiidha
bhavati. 3) i > >huh I >liavi J ' virhhavaiii tirohlun ip vanuhhann i likud)
vatam apy asakto gacchati tad yathdpi ndma dkd.se pak.si sakimih. 6) prthivyam spy
iiiinuijjuiiinuijj'ini karoti tadyathapi iiainodake. 1) udake 'hhidyainaiio gacchati tad yathdpi iiama prthivyam. 8) aka.se
paryankeiia kramati tadyatha sakuiiih pak.si.
9) dliiiiiiayate apt prajvalty apt tad tathapi ndma malum agiiiskaiidliah. 10) udakani apt kayat prainuiicati tad yathdpi
ndma mahameghah. 1 1 ) imav api suryacaiiararamasaii evani maliarddliikau maliariuhliayaii pariina paramrsati yavad
Brahmalokad api kayani va.seua vartayati.
" U ^ Kosa, VII, p. 122, lists five kinds of rddhi: i) produced by meditation (hhd\ I, ii) innate (i > ildbhika), iii)
ill d I in i i 1 i n i ' I i i I I n i ( i I in 1 ii n ii 1 1 i 1
Like oilier texts of the Lesser and Grcatei chid i valai ka lahayana un i I) I ill i il hasa, etc ), the Mpps is
iwarc ofth ransmulation of metal « o In ubjeel c * >' il ',' ' i , o alchcim Buddlii cri, n I O
VI, 4, 1932, p. 1102-1103. We should remi ml r that thi bi( raphei oi faj rjui Chinese as well as Tibetan, presenl
him above all as an alchemist possessing the elixir of life and able to change stone into gold (cf. Long chou p'ou sa
tchouan, T 2047, p. 184a; Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 10, p. 930a; Bu ston, II, p. 13; Taranatha, p. 73; S. Levi,
Kdiii.shkd ei Shdtdrhdhdiid, JA, Jan. Mar. 1936, p. 103-107). From these references to alchemy in the Mpps, we must not
conclude, as does O. Stein, References to alchemy in Buddhist scriptures, BSOS, VII, 1, 1933, p. 263, that the Chih Tu
louen can hardly be earlier than the 8th century. First, it has not been proven that the author of the Mpps is identical v ith
the Nagarjuna to whom ih I \ ikara, a work of the 7th or 8th century, is attributed. As docs alchemy, il constitutes
one of the elements of tantric Buddhism the origins of which go back further than is generally admitted. G. Tucci, The
first mention of Tantric Schools, J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, XXVI, 1930, p. 128-132, has shown that one tantric sect, that of
the ICapalikas, is at least as old as Ham arman and Asahga. final!) . and this is the decisive point, the Mpps was translated
by KumarajTva who lived from 344 to 413 A.D.
These imaginary creatures are not subject to birth ijdti), old age (Jam), sickness (vyddhi) and death
(marana); they experience neither unhappiness (duhkha) nor happiness (sukha) and thus are different from
humans. This is why they are empty and non-existent. In the same way, all dharmas are without arising
(utpdda), duration (sthiti) and cessation (bhariga); this is why they are compared to nirmdnas.
Furthermore, the products of nirmdna have no fixed substance (aniyatadravya); [105b] only insofar as
they arise from the mind [of metamorphosis] do they have an activity (kriyd), but they do not truly exist. It
is the same for human lifetimes; for origin, they have no cause; they come from the minds (citta,
synonymous here with karman) of the past existence giving rise to the existence of the present life which is
absolutely without reality. This is why dharmas are compared to a nirmdna.
When the nirmdna mind (nirmdnacitta) has vanished, the manifestation (nirmdna) vanishes as well. It is
the same with dharmas: when the causes and conditions (hetupratyaya) have disappeared, the fruit (phala)
disappears as well, for it is dependent as is the product of nirmdna.
Although they are empty of reality, the nirmdnas can cause beings to experience joy (muditd), hatred
<>'\< ;a) idnc (dam nana va) ulTcring ( hihkha) 01 conlii ion (inoha). In the same way, although
dharmas are empty and unreal, they can cause beings to experience joy (muditd), hatred (dvesa), sadness
(daurmanasya), fear (bhaya), etc. This is why they are compared to a nirmdna.
Moreover, the products of metamorphosis (nirmdnajadharma) lack beginning, middle and end
(apurvamadhyacarama); it is the same with dharmas. When the nirmdnas arise, they do not go anywhere;
when they vanish, they do not go anywhere. It is the same with dharmas.
Finally, the nirmdnas are pure (laksanavisuddha) like space (dkdsa); they are not attached to (sakta) nor
defiled by (klista) sins or merits (pdpapunya). It is the same for the dharmas, for suchness (dharmatd), the
true nature (tathatd) or the summit of existence (bhutakoti) is itself (svatah) always pure (nityasuddha).
Thus the four great rivers of Jambudvlpa,"^ each of which has five hundred tributaries, have their waters
polluted in various ways; but when they flow into the great ocean, they are perfectly clear.
""•' The canonical and post-canonical scriptures list five great rivers (panca mahanadiyo) in Jambudvipa: Ganga,
Yamuna (Jamna), Sarahhu (Sarin), Aciravah (Rapli). Main (Gaya district). Cf. Vinaya. II, p. 237, 239: Samyutta, 11, p.
135; V, p. 401; Anguttara, IV, p. 101; V, p. 22; Milinda, p. 70. 87. 380; Tchong a han, T 26, k. 2, p. 428c; Tsa a han, T
99, k. 30, p. 215a; Jnanaprasthana, T 1543, k. 1, p. 772b; T 1544, k. 1, p. 918c.
Although the Mpps is aware of these pana < i In 1 i num l ites at k. 28, p. 266a, here it means the four
great rivers which flow out of Lake Ana\ at pta ( < d (In in ) ' (O u l inl t( Tarim) It will describe
these fully below (k. 7, p. 114a). The perspective of th lpp i i I i Mi .n ii > >i Mi' nonii I riplun * lie h irizoi
was limited to Gangetic India. At least this is the reason given by the Vibhasa, T 1543, k. 5, p. 21c-22a: "When the
Bhadanta (Katyayaniputra) composed this Jnanaprasthana, he was in the Last [i.e., in eastern India]; this is why he cites
as example the five rivers commonly seen in the East. But actually (here are four great rivers in this Jambudvipa, each of
which gives rise to four secondary rivers: the Gariga, (he Sindhu, the Vaksu and the Sfta." These four great rivers are
known and cited in southern Indian Buddhism in prcfcrcnci i <li , in i n, n f. Dirghau ma Cosmo i ph (T
1, k. 18, p. 116c; T 23, k. 1, p. 289a; T 24, k. k. 1, p. 313a; T 25, k. 1, p. 368a); the Vibhasa (I.e.), the Kosa, III, p. 147;
Question. - It cannot be said thai the nirmdnas are empty. Why? Because the mind of metamorphosis [on
which it is dependent] comes from the development (bhdvand) of a samadhi. It is with this mind [of
metamorphosis] that all kinds of nirmdnas are realized. Whether it is a man or a thing, this nirmdna has a
cause (hetu) and produces an effect (phala). How can it be empty?
Answer. - We must repeat the answer that we have already given with regard to the shadow (chaya).
Although the cause and condition (hetupratyaya) of the nirmdna exist, the result, viz., the nirmdna, is
empty. It is as empty as the speech (vac) that comes out of the mouth. Even though the mind (citta) and the
mouth (mukha) produce this word, it does not exist by the fact of the mind and the mouth alone. The object
designated (ukta) by this word may just as well exist as not exist. If we talk about a second head (dvitiya
sirsaka) or a third hand (trtiya hasta), we cannot say that this head or this hand exists even though they
arise from the mind [that conceives them] and the mouth [that speaks of them]. Thus the Buddha said: "By
examining that which does not arise (anutpada), one is freed from that which arises; by being based on the
unconditioned (asamskrta), one is freed from the conditioned (samskrta) " Although the non-arisen dharma
(anutpannadharma) does not exist, it can play the role of cause and condition (hetupratyaya), and it is the
same for the unconditioned (asamskrta). Although the nirmdna itself is empty, it can itself give rise to a
mind. As with the other nine points of comparison (upam ina I magii hov (mdyd) miragf (maricT), etc., it
can engender all sorts of minds even though it does not exist.
Furthermore, the nirmdna cannot be included in the six causes (hetu) and the four conditions
(pratyaya)?™ As it is not associated (samprayukta) with them, it is empty (sunyci).
Finally, empty [things] are not empty because they are invisible (anidarsana) but because they lack true
activity (kdritra). This is why dharmas are compared to a nirmdna.
ll t! limn i mil isthan (in S. 1 ! Ian. -Feb., 1918, p. 150); Hiuan tsang, Si yu
ki, T 2087, k. 1, p. 809b (tr. Watters, Travels, I, p. 32-34).
in the pi lii i i in l|i| hi ( mograph if the Di'rgh una (I l and th in i ' > i n 1 in 1 159, k. 4, p.
307b, attributes 500 tributaries to each of the four great rivers. In contrast, the Vibhasa (k. 5, p. 72a) enumerates four
tributaries to each of them (cf. Levi, 1. c, p. 151).
Eastern and northern traditions are contrasted in a passage from Milinda: while the Pali version enumerates (p. 70) the
piulcu inaliaiiadiyo (Gahga, Yamuna. Aciravati, .Vlahi), (lie corresponding passage in (he Chinese translation cites the four
great rivers flowing out of Anavatapta (Gahga, Sindhu, Sila, Vaksu) plus a. fifth river, still unidentified, the Chep'iyi, and
attributes 500 tributaries to each of these rivers (Cf. Dcmicvillc, Les versions eliinoises du Milindupunhu. BLTTO, XXIV,
1924, p. 152-153; 230-231).
This is not the only example where the two traditions do not agree about the same text. Thus the Saptasuryodayasutra
tells us thai at the time of the third [\ ariant; fourth] sun, the 'great rivers' dry up and disappear. In some versions of this
siitra (Pali Anguttara, IV. p. 101: Chinese Madhyamagama, T 26, k. 2, p. 428c), these rivers are the Gahga, the Yamuna,
(he Sarabhu, (he Aciravati anil the .Vlahi. on She oilier hand, in other versions of the same sutra (Sa po to sou li yu nai ye
king, T 30, p. 812a; Chinese Ekottaragama, T 125, k. 34, p. 736b; Mpps, T 1509, k. 31, p. 290b), the rivers in question are
the Gahga, the Sindhu, die Sua and the Vaksu.
li is lo this latter tradition, the northern tradition, that (he Mpps belongs,
604 Cf. Kosa, II, p. 245 (six hetu); II, p. 299 (fom praty ay a).
Question. - Any dharma whatsoever is as empty isunyd) as the ten points of comparison [used here in the
sutra]; why does the surra limit itself to these ten comparisons and not give as example mountains
(parvata), rivers (nadf), stone walls (sailakudya), etc?
[105c] Answer. - Although all dharmas are empty, there are differences (vise$a) among them: emptiness is
harder to see in some than in others. Here the sutra compares {dharmas] the emptiness of which is hard to
see [with other dharmas, e.g., magic show, mirage, etc.], the emptiness of which is easy to see..
Moreover, there are two types of dharmas: those that are the object of an erroneous judgment
(cittdbhinivesasthdna) and those that are not the object of an erroneous judgment (cittdnabhinivesasthdna).
Here we are using the second type in order to understand the first type.
Question. - Why are the ten points of comparison not the object of erroneous judgment?
Answer. - Because these ten points [magic show, mirage, etc.] do not last for a long time {acirasthitika)
and because they arise and perish easily. This is why they are not the object of an erroneous judgment.
Moreover, there are people who know that these ten points bring about auditory and visual delusions, but
who do not know that dharmas are empty. This is why the stitra compares dharmas [to these ten points]
here. If people believed in the reality of the ten points of comparison [used by the sutra], they would not
understand the various objections [raised here against the reality of dharmas] because they would hold [the
magic show, the mirage, etc.] to be real. If these ten points of comparison do not fulfill their role [in the
discussion], we would need to resort to yet other demonstrations (dharmaparyaya).
20. ASANGAVAISARADYAPRATILABDHA
Sutra: They have acquired the unhindered fearlessnesses (asangavaisdradyapratilbadhaih).
Sdstra: Their mind encounters no obstacle (dvarana), neither exhaustion (ksaya) nor cessation (nirodha),
in regard to the various aggregates (skandha), elements (dhdtu), bases of consciousness (dyatana) or
causes and conditions {hetupratyaya). Thus they have unhindered fearlessnesses {asangavaisdradya).
Question. - The sutra said above that in the midst of infinite assemblies the bodhisattvas are endowed with
the fearlessnesses (tinunttiptirstinnuidhyu vuisuixiclyusumunvugutah); why does it repeat here that they
have unhindered fearlessnesses?
Answer. - Above, it was a question of the cause (hetu) of the vaisdradyas, here it concerns their effect
(phala). In the assemblies (samgha), including those of the bodhisattvas, their preaching (dharmadesand)
is inexhaustible (aksayd), their teaching (upadesa) indomitable (anapakarsa) and their mind (citta)
imperturbable, for they have acquired the unhindered fearlessnesses. Moreover, the surra said above that
they are fearless in the midst of infinite assemblies, but one does not know by virtue of what power they
are fearless. This is why here it adds that they are fearless because they have acquired an unhindered power
(asahgabald).
Question. - If the bodhisattvas, like the Buddha, have these unhindered fearlessnesses, how does the
Buddha differ from them?
Answer. - We have said that the bodhisattvas who have the power of the fearlessnesses [106a] experience
no fear in respect to any dharma. But that is not the [superior] fearlessnesses enjoyed by the Buddha.
Moreover, there are two kinds of unhindered dharma:; (asangadharmd), unn ersal ( sarvaga, sarvabhumika)
and non-universai (asarvagd). The person, for example, who experiences no difficulty in a whole series of
texts (sastra), from one text to a hundred thousand texts, or who experiences no fear in front of a whole
series of assemblies (samgha), from one to a hundred thousand assemblies, is non-universal. In the same
way, the bodhisattvas do not encounter any obstacle in their own wisdom (prajna) but rather in that of the
Buddha. Thus when the Buddha dropped his begging bowl (patra), the five hundred arhats and the
bodhisattvas, Maitreya, etc., were unable to catch hold of it.°"5 In the same way, the bodhisattvas
encounter no obstacles in their own power (bald), but they do in that of the Buddha's wisdom. It is in this
sense that we say that the bodhisattvas have unfettered fearlessness (asangavaisaradya).
21. AVATARAKUSALA
Sutra: Knowing the course (gati) of the mind and the conduct (carita) of beings, they were skilled in
saving them (avatar akusald) by means of their subtle wisdom (suksmajnana) .
Sastra: Question. - How do the bodhisattvas know the minds and conduct of beings?
Answer. - They know the minds and the actions of beings; they are like the light of the sun which shines
everywhere; they know where the thoughts and acts of beings will lead and they instruct them on these
subjects, saying: "Beings have two types of courses {gati): either their mind is always in search of pleasure
(sukha) or their wisdom succeeds in distinguishing good from bad. Do not follow your inclinations
(sangacitta); apply yourselves to wisdom (prajna), redirect your thoughts. For innumerable kalpas you
have accumulated actions of mixed value (misrakarman) without stopping; you pursue only worldly
pleasures (lokasukha) without understanding that they are suffering (duhkha); you do not see that the world
that covets pleasure falls into misfortune and will be reborn in the five destinies (gati). Who is able to undo
what has been done by the mind? You are like a mad elephant (gandhahastiri) that tramples, destroys,
pillages and demolishes without allowing itself to be controlled. Who will be able to tame you? If you find
a skillful tamer, you will escape the torments of the world, you will understand the impurity of the rebirths.
The fetter of misfortune is like hell (niraya). If one is reborn there, it is old age (jara), sickness (vyadhi),
death (marand), suffering (duhkha), sadness (daurmanasyd), and all kinds of confusion; if one is reborn in
the heavens (svarga), one will fall back down in the threefold world (traidhatuka). There is no peace. Why
""^ Cf. Lalitavistara, p. 270 (tr. Foucaux, p. 232): When the Bodhisattva had eaten the honey milk-broth (madhupayasd)
that Sujata had offered, not caring about the golden vase (suvarnapatii). he dropped it in the water. Sagara, king of the
nagas took it and cut to his lion i r. India, having taken th hapc ol i id i ith a lightnii iolt in his I i 1
tried to take the golden vase away from the naga king \\ ith no success, then in his usual form, he courteously asked for it
and brought it back to the Trayastrimsa hea\ en lo build a caitya for it and to pay homage to it. - This 'theft of the bowl' is
represented on a medallion on the balustrade of Amaravati (see RAA, XI, 1937, pi XVI, or llistoire uiiiverselk des Arts,
published by L. Reau, vol. IV, Ai r\ >' i I ' > j> 142 tig. 103).
do you cling to pleasures?" Such are the various reproaches {avadya) made by the bodhisattvas to them,
and this proves that they know the mind and conduct of beings.
Question. - How do they save them by means of their subtle wisdom? First, what is subtle wisdom
(suksmajndna) and what is coarse wisdom (sthulajfidna)!
Answer. - Coarse wisdom is a purely mundane skill (laukikanaipunya); generosity (ddnd), discipline (sila),
and concentration (samddhi) are called subtle wisdom.
Furthermore, the wisdom of generosity is a coarse wisdom; the wisdom of discipline and concentration
( ' ' nia) is subtle wisdom.
Furthermore, the wisdom of dhyana is coarse wisdom; dhyana without bliss (prasrabdhi) is a subtle
wisdom. [106b]
Furthermore, it is a coarse wisdom that grasps all the characteristics of dharmas (dharmalaksana), but it is
a subtle wisdom that does not accept or reject any characteristic of dharmas.
Finally, destroying ignorance (avidya) and the other afflictions (Mesa) and discovering the nature of
dharmas is a coarse wisdom; but penetrating into the true nature, incorruptible and imperishable like gold
(suvarna), indestructible and unchangeable like diamond (yajra), untarnishable and ungraspable like space
(dkdsa), is a subtle wisdom.
These are the innumerable subtle wisdoms that the bodhisattvas have acquired and which they teach
beings. Thus the sutra says that, knowing the course of the mind and the activity of beings, the bodhisattvas
are skilled in saving them by means of the subtle wisdom.
CHAPTER XII: UNHINDERED MIND
Text of the sutra commented on in this chapter (cf. Pancavimsati, p. 5, Satasahasrika, p. 5): (22)
uprutihutucittaii , (2.3) atlhimatraksantisamanvagatair, (24) yatlultmyavataranakusalaih.
These bodhisattvas had a mind without obstacles; they were endowed with utmost patience; they excelled
in saving appropriately.
22. APRATIHATACITTA
Sutra: Their mind had no obstacles {apratihatacitta).
Sclstra: How is their mind unhindered?
i) In respect to all people, enemies (vairin), relatives (bandhu) or neutral ones, their impartiality
(samacittatd) is complete (apratigha).
ii) [This impartiality] is extended to beings of all the universes (sarvalokadhdtusattva): they feel no
hostility (dghdta) if someone comes to torment them; they feel no joy (muditd) if they are honored in many
ways. A stanza says:
They have no attachment
Towards the Buddha or the bodhisattvas;
They have no hostility
Towards heretics or bad people.
This purity [of mind] is called apratihatacitta.
Hi) Finally, their mind is without obstacles in regard to dharmas.
Question. - But these bodhisattvas have not attained buddhahood and do not yet possess omniscience
(sarvajnana); why does their mind not encounter obstacles in regard to the dharmas?
Answer. - Having attained immense pure wisdom (apramanavisuddhaprajna), their mind is free of
obstacles with regard to dharmas.
Question. - But since they have not reached buddhahood, they cannot possess immense wisdom
(apramdnajndna); since they retain a residue of fetters (bandhana), they cannot have pure wisdom.
Answer. - The bodhisattvas [in question here] are not the bodhisattvas with fleshly body (mdmsakdya),
who are bound to actions and limited to the threefold world (traidhatuka). All of them have acquired the
sovereignty of the dharmakaya (dharmakdyaisvarya) and transcended old age (jard), sickness (vyddhi) and
death (marana); out of compassion for beings, they dwell in the universes (lokadhdtu), move about in and
adorn the buddha-fields (buddhaksetra) and convert beings. Having acquired sovereignty (aisvarya), they
wish to become Buddha and to succeed therein."^"
Question. - If the bodhisattvas of the dharmakaya are no different from the Buddha, why are they called
bodhisattva; why do they serve the Buddha and listen to his teaching? If they are different from the
Buddha, how do they possess the immense and pure knowledge (apramdnavisuddhajndnayl™'
Answer. - Although they have attained the dharmakaya and transcended old age, sickness and death, they
differ slightly from the Buddha; they are like the moon of the fourteenth day (caturdasicandra) which we
wonder whether it is full (puma) or not. Thus the bodhisattvas have not yet become truly Buddha although
they act as Buddha and preach the Dharma. The Buddha himself [106c] is like the moon of the fifteenth
day (pancadasicandra) which is undeniably full. "°
Furthermore, there are two types of immense purity (apramdnavisuddhi). The first is limited, but those
who cannot measure it call it immense; this is, for example, [the number] of drops of water in the ocean
{samudrabindu), or [the number] of grains of sand in the sands of the Ganges (gangdnadivdlukd); unable
to evaluate it, people describe it as immense. But for the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, there is no limited
immensity: the immense and pure wisdom of the bodhisattvas is unlimited. For gods, humans, sravakas and
pratyekabuddhas, [the wisdom] that cannot be measured is called immense wisdom (apramdnajnana), but
the bodhisattvas, at the moment they find the path of non-arising (anutpadamargd), cut through the fetters
(samyojana) and acquire pure wisdom (visuclclluijiiunu).
°^° The Mpps distinguishes two types of bodhisattvas: the bodhisattva of fleshly bod} (mdmsakdya b.) who is reborn as a
result of his actions; the bodhisattva of dharmakaya (dharmakaya h.) who transcends ordinal;, existence and exists in
accordance with the dharmadhatu. The bodhisattva abandons his fleshly body and attains a body of dharmadhatu vv hen he
enters into the sauna ind acquit es the patient acceptance that accepts and undetsl nd inn i in
I ' In i I. C T Mpps, k. 30, p. 278a; k. 34, p. 309b; k. 38, p. 340a I'hcsc pa i ha* < been transl id I
and explained by L. de La Vallee Poussin in Siddhi, p. 780-784.
00/ p or tne s t r i c t analogy of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas, the Hobogirin, Bosatsu, p. 149, has collected a number of
references of which several have been taken from the Mpps. In general, it can be said that the great bodhisattva is 'the
result of the dharmadhatu' (d, Ian i i iksasamuccaya, p. 15' iting (he Tatha laguhyasuti lv 1
the Buddha is "the sovereign of the dharmadhatu' (dharmakayavasavartin): cf. Laiikavatara, p. 70.
608 Cf. k. 29, p. 273b (tr. Poussin in Siddhi, p. 737): "If the bodhisattvas are the dharmakaya, teach the Dharma, save
beings, in what way do they differ from the Buddhas? The bodhisattvas have great magical powers, reside in the ten
bhiimis, possess the dharmas of the Buddha; however, they remain in the world in order to save beings: therefore they do
not enter into nirvana and they teach the dharma to people. But they do not really have a body of the Buddha. They
liberate beings, but within certain limits: whereas the beings liberated by the Buddha arc immeasurable, they have a
buddha body but they do not fill up the ten directions. The Buddha-body fills innumerable universes and the beings to be
converted all see the body of the Buddha. The bodhisattvas arc like the moon on the fourteenth day: they shine, but not
as much as the moon of tin fifti nHi ii ill ,] tin vlpp ill mak< hi omp rison i u.t Hi bodhi ii i u lik<
the moon of the fourteenth day that docs not vet raise the tide: the Buddhas are like the moon of the fifteenth day."
The Ratnakuta, cited in Madh. avatara, p. 5 (tr. Poussin, Museon, 1907, p. 255), compares the bodhisattvas to the new
moon (:la ha tslws pal and the Buddha io the full moon (:la ha ha ha).
Question. - If it is at this moment that they cut through the fetters, what do they still have to cut through
when they become Buddha?
Answer. - Purity (visuddhi) is of two types: i) At the moment when they become Buddha, they expel the
bonds {bandhandni samudghdtayanti) and obtain real purity completely; ii) At the moment when they cast
off the fleshly body (mdmsakdya) and acquire the dharmakdya, they [simply] break the bonds {bandhandni
chinnanti): this is the [lesser] purity. It is like a lamp (dipa) that chases away the shadows (andhakara) and
fulfills its role, but there is a more powerful lamp that shines still more brightly. For the cutting of the
fetters (samyojunachcheclunu), it is the same for the Buddhas and bodhisattvas: [the fetters] that are broken
in the bodhisattvas may be described as 'broken', but in comparison with those that are broken in the
Buddhas, they have not completely disappeared. This is what is called the immense and pure wisdom
(apramdnavisuddhajndna) by virtue of which the bodhisattvas have an unhindered mind towards
(api'titiluitacitta) all dharmas.
23. ADHIMATRAKSANTISAMANVAGATA
Sutra: They were endowed with utmost patience (uclhimutixiksuntisumunvugutuih).
Sdstra: Question. - We have already discussed the patience of equanimity (samatdksdnti) and the patience
with respect to dharmas (dharmaksdnti); why does the sutra say again that the bodhisattvas are endowed
with utmost patience?
Answer. - The increase (vrddhi) of the two patiences you have just mentioned is called utmost patience
Moreover, the patience of equanimity (samatdksdnti) may be held by beings (sattva); the patience
consonant with the Dharma (dharmdnulomiki ksdntih) is the patience relating to profound dharmas
(gambhiradharma): the increase (vrddhi) of these two patiences realizes (sclksatkaroti) the patience relating
to non-arising (cinutpcittikcidluirnuikscliiti).®" During his last fleshly existence (caramamdmsabhava), the
bodhisattva contemplates the Buddhas of the ten directions (dasadigbuddhd) and their emanations
(nirmdna): he is seated in space opposite them. This is what is called 'endowed with utmost patience'. It is
like in the sravaka system where the increase (vrddhi) of heal (usmagata) is called summit (murdhan) and
the increase of summit is called patience (ksanti): they are not distinct dharmas but merely [three] different
degrees [of one and the same thing]. °10 Thus it is the same for the utmost patience (adhimatraksanti) and
the patience of equanimity (samatdksdnti) [which constitute different degrees of the same patience].
1 (l ' i h In i lh ill li i i ili i. p i i > omiki- and ; harm
well as the sun ai miah / /; of Ihc Divya, p. 80.
" 10 An allusion to the four auxiliaries of penetration or insight (nirvedhabhdgiya): heat (usmagata), summit
i / i, patience ( in i i pi m J'l rma l / /
Ithoiigh th i i in i ' (in conti I H ,' / igi\ l oi in in lh canonii i riptnn (i Di ha. III, p. 251,
277; Samyutta, V, p. 345; Ahguttara, III, p. 427; Vibhahga, p. 330), the theory of the four auxiliaries of penetration
appears only in the scholasticism of the Lesser Vehicle (cf. Divyavadana, p. 80; Kosa, VI, p. 169). It concerns the lour
Furthermore, there are two kinds of patience: the patience towards beings (sattvaksdnti) and the patience
towards dharmas (dharmaksdnti). The patience towards beings relates to beings: if beings as numerous as
the sands of the Ganges (gangdnadivdlukopamasattva) persecute you in every way, you do not feel any
anger (dvesa); if they honor you (arhayanti) and pay homage to you (pujayanti) in every way, you
experience no joy (mudita). Moreover, you know that beings have no beginning (agra); if they have no
beginning, they have no causes and conditions (hetupratyaya); if they have no causes and conditions, they
have no end either. Why? Because the beginning and the end are interdependent (anyonydpekha). If they
have neither beginning nor end, they have no middle (madhya) either." 11 When things are seen in this
way, one does not fall into the [107a] two extreme views (antadvayd) of eternalism (sasvata) and nihilism
(uccheda); it is by means of the way of safety (yogaksema) that one considers beings without producing
wrong views (mithyddrsti) . This is what is called patience towards beings (sattvaksdnti).
The patience relating to dharmas (dharmaksdnti) is the unhindered mind (apratihatacitta) relating to
profound dharmas (gambhiradharma).
Question. - What are the profound dharmas?
Answer. - See the explanation already given for gambhiradharmaksdnti By gambhiradharma we mean the
following: In the twelve-membered pratltyasamutpada, the result is produced successively; the result
(phala) is not present in the cause (hetu), but neither is it absent; it is from this intermediate state that it
arises. This is called gamhliFraclliaiina .
roots of good (kusaUiinuUi) practiced in the path of preparation (prayogainarga) immediately preceding Ihc path of seeing
(dtirsa i i ' I i [i I Obi mill i >octi i of P.P., p. 20.
lii foui i , ill, iyt have been adopted hy the masters of the Greater Vehicle and make up part of the bodhisattva
Path: they must be practiced during the level of activity in faith | ihimui it i bhumi) thi tagi pi paratorj
t i vo i i i) to enti into tin bhumi hi! rmillcr, o.c., p. 34-37). In the scholasticism of the Greater Vehicle, the
foui i ti hi correspond > foui onccntratioi l m a I: Ih icquisition of light l o <lia I, ih in < <
of light Uilokavrddhi). penetration of one part of the truth (tattvaikadeswiiipravesa), the concentration immediate!}
prcccdin ill , iin if seeing ( vasamadi lorcovei in ii ijiian In ii ml i i in I ll
samddhis are connected with a fourfold knowledge: lessei pa) 1 I /
greater yathabhuta-parijnana.
Here are some references: In the Prajna literature: Abhisamaya, p. 5 (v. 26), p. 279V. 1-4); Aloka, p. 36, 63, 663 (cf.
Obermillcr, Analysis, p. 8-9. 63). - In the Madhyamaka literature: .Vladh. vrtti, p. 362 n.; Bodhicaryavatara, IX, v. 41;
Panjika, p. 426. - In the Yogacara literature: Sutralamkara (ed. Levi), VI., v. 9: XIV, v. 23-26;
hidharmasamu i ikhya, T 1606, 1 i 4c: Uttaratantra, p. 86: Vladhyan ibhanga, ] - ii igraha, p. 161,
169-170; Siddhi, p. 575-584, 602-603.
" Another paraphrasing from Madh. Karika, XI, 2, p. 220-22 1 :
iiaivagniiii navanuii yasya tasya inadliyaiii kuto hluivet,
tasmdn natropapasyante punaparasahakramah//
"How could that which has neither beginning nor end have a middle? Consequently, there is no scries consisting of an
initial and a final term "
Furthermore, when the three gates of liberation (vimoksamukha), namely, emptiness (sunyatd), signlessness
(dnimitta) and wishlessness (apranihita), are penetrated, the eternal bliss of nirvana is found. This also is a
gaiuhhfrac/hanua.
Finally, it is also a gambhiradharma to consider dharmas as neither empty (sunya) nor non-empty
(asiinya), neither with marks (sanimitta) nor without marks (animitta), neither active (sakriya) nor inactive
(akriya) and, by considering them thus, not to attach one's mind to it. Some stanzas say:
Dharmas resulting from causes and conditions
Are called empty of nature (siinyalaksana),
Are described as conventional (prajnaptisat),
Are called the Middle path (madhyamd pratipacl).
If dharmas really existed
They would not return into nothingness.
Not existing after having existed (bhiitva uhhuvu)
Is what is called annihilation (uccheda).
When there is neither eternalism nor nihilism,
Neither existence nor non-existence,
The basis of the mind and of consciousness disappears
And words are exhausted.
Faced with these gambhiradharmas, the mind of the bodhisattvas experiences neither difficulty (avarana)
nor repugnance (vipratisdra) nor any setback. This is why they are endowed with utmost patience
(atlhimatraksantisamanvagata).
24. YATHATMYAVATARANUKUSALA
Sutra: They excelled in saving appropriately (yathdtmydvatdrakusalaih).
Sdstra: The systems of the heretics (tirthikadharma), while saving beings, do not save them appropriately,
because all kinds of wrong views (mithyddrsti) and fetters (samyojana) remain.
- The two vehicles, [that of the sravakas and that of the pratyekabuddhas], while possessing the means of
salvation, do not save as they should (yathdyogam), for their adepts, not being omniscient (sarvajna), use
only rather rudimentary skillful means (updyacitta). It is only bodhisattvas who can save appropriately.
[There is a good and a bad way of saving beings, just as there is a good way and a bad way to cross a river
or to cure a sickness.] Thus, to take someone across to the other shore, the master ferryman (tarandedrya)
is able to use a fisherman's straw raft (kaivartatrnakola) or a big boat (rani-); there are notable differences
between these two ways of crossing. In the same way, [the sravakas and pratyekabuddhas lead beings to
the other shore of salvation by using the straw raft of the Lesser Vehicle, whereas the bodhisattvas take
them across in the ship of the Greater Vehicle]. Or again, there are different remedies for curing sicknesses
(vyddhi), such as medicinal herbs (osadhi) or cauterization with a needle; but there is a still more
wonderful herb called Sou t'o chan t'o (Suddhasanta?) which it suffices that the sick person looks at it and
all his ills are cured. Although these remedies seem similar, their quality differs. It is the same for the
sravakas and pratyekabuddhas in their methods of converting beings: asceticism (tapas), dhutahga,
practice of the three nights (prathama-madhyama-pascima-ydma), exertion (viryacitta) and ecstasy
(dhydna). According to the sravaka doctrine, one finds the Path by considering suffering (duhkha);
according to the bodhisattva doctrine, the mind finds purity (visuddhi) by considering the dharmas as free
of bonds (bandhana) and free of deliverance (moksa). Compare the Wen chou che lo pen yuan
(Manjusryavadana):
ManjusrT said to the Buddha: "Bhagavat, once in times gone by, (bhutapurvam affte 'dhvani) - [107b]
innumerable incalculable periods ago - there was a Buddha called Che tseu yin wang (Simhanadaraja). The
lifetime of the Buddha and of beings was a hundred thousand kotinayuta years; the Buddha saved beings
by the three Vehicles (yclnatraya): the country was called Ts'ien kouang ming (Sahasraloka). In this land,
the trees (vrksa) were made of the seven jewels (saptaratna) and emitted immense and pure sounds of the
Dliarma (api-amancivisuclclluiclluirmasvara): the sounds of emptiness (siinyatd), signlessness (animitta),
wishlessness (apranihita), non-arising (anutpdda), non-cessation (anirodha) and nothingness (dkimcanya).
The beings who heard these sounds found their minds opening up and discovered the Path. When the
Buddha Simhanadaraja preached the Dharma to the first assembly, 99 kotis of human beings attained the
state of arhat. It was the same for the bodhisattva assembly: all these bodhisattvas had acquiescence of the
teaching of non-arising (unutpattikaclluuiiuiksunti), they penetrated all sorts of religious texts
(dharmaparydya), they saw innumerable Buddhas whom they served {arcana) and honored (pujd), they
were able to save innumerable and incalculable beings, they possessed innumerable dharanlmukhas, they
used innumerable samadhis of all kinds; from the first production of mind (prathamacittotpdda), they had
crossed through the gate of the Path. It would be impossible to cite and list all these bodhisattvas and
describe the beauties (alamkdrd) of this buddha-field (buddhaksetra). Finally, when the Buddha had
converted them all, he entered into nirvana-without-remainder (nirupadhisesanirvdna); his Dharma lasted
60,000 more years and then the trees stopped emitting the sounds of the Dharma (dharmasvara).
There were, at that time, two bodhisattva bhiksus named Hi ken (Prasannendriya) and Cheng yi (Agramati).
The Dharma teacher Prasannendriya, of frank and simple manner, had not renounced the things of the
world (lokadharma) and did not distinguish good from evil. His disciples were intelligent (medhdvin),
loved the Dharma and understood admirably the profound meaning {gambhirdrtha). Their teacher did not
recommend moderation in desires (alpecchdsamtusti) to them or the observance of the precepts (Macaryd)
or the practice of the dhutas. He spoke to them only of the true nature (satyalaksana) of the dharmas which
is pure (visuddha). He said to them: 'The dharmas are characterized by desire (rdga), hatred (dvesa) and
delusion (moha), but all these chai n u 1 1 lii (lal ci( i) may be reduced to the true nature (satyalaksana) of
the dharmas which is without hindrance (apratihata).' It was by these soteriological means (updya) that he
instructed his disciples and introduced them into the knowledge of the unique nature (ekalaksanajndna).
Thus his disciples felt no hostilii ha) < fi don (a aya) foi people and, as their minds were
unperturbed, they had obtained the patience towards beings (sattvaksanti); provided with the patience
towards beings, they acquired the patience relating to the dharmas (dharmaksanti). In the presence of the
true doctrine, they remained motionless (acala) like a mountain.
By contrast, the Dharma teacher Agramati, clinging to the purity of the precepts (silavisuddhi), practiced
the twelve dhutas, had acquired the four dhyanas and the formless absorptions (arupyasamapatti). His
disciples were of weak faculties (mrdvindriya) and clung to distinguishing the pure (suddha) [practices]
from the impure (asuddha) ones; their minds were always disturbed [by qualms].
on various occasions, Agramati went to the village (grama) among the disciples of Prasannendriya, and
seated there, he praised the precepts (Ma), moderation in desires (alpecchasamtusti), the practice of
solitude (aranya) and the dhyanas. He criticized their teacher Agramati, saying: "This man, who preaches
the Dharma and teaches people, introduces them into wrong views (mithyadrsti). He says that desire
(rdga), anger (dvesa) and delusion (moha) are not an obstacle (pratigha), that people of mixed practices
(misracarya) are not really pure." The disciples of Prasannendriya, who had keen faculties (tiksnendriya)
and the patience relating to [107c] dharmas, asked Agramati:
- O Venerable one, what are the characteristics of desire?
- Desire has affliction as its nature.
- Is this affliction of desire internal (adhyatmam) or external (bahirdha)!
- This affliction of desire is neither internal nor external. If it were internal, it would not depend on causes
and conditions (hetupratyaya) to take birth; if it were external, it would not have anything to do with the
self and would be unable to torment it.
People then retorted:
- If desire is neither internal (adhymatmam) nor external (bahirdha) nor in the [four] directions; in the east
(purvasyam disi), in the south (daksinasyam disi), in the west (pascimayam dm) or in the north
(uttarasyam disi), nor in the four intermediate directions (vidiksu), nor at the zenith (uparistad disi) nor at
the nadir (adhastdd disi), one might look everywhere for its true nature and one would never find it. This
dharma does not arise (notpadyate) and does not cease (na nirudhyate) and, since it lacks the
characteristics of birth and cessation (utpadanirodhalaksana), it is empty (siinya) and non-existent
(akimcana). How could it torment [the atman]?
Deeply displeased on hearing these words, Agramati could not reply. He rose from his seat, saying: "[Your
teacher] Prasannendriya deceives many beings and clings to wrong w< (mithyamai %a)." This bodhisattva
Agramati did not know the ghosapravesadharam; he was happy when he heard the speech of the Buddha
and grieved when he heard a heretical (tirthika) word; he was sad when he heard speak of the three evil
(akusala) things and rejoiced when he heard speak of the three good things (kusala); lie hated speaking
about samsara and loved to speak about nirvana. Leaving the dwellings of the vaisya, he went back to the
forest and returned to his monastery (vihdra). He said to his bhiksus: "You should know that the
bodhisattva Prasannendriya is an impostor who leads people to evil. Why? He claims that the nature of
desire, hatred and delusion (ragadvesamohalaksana) as well as all the other dharmas is not an obstacle."
Then the bodhisattva Prasannendriya had this thought: "This Agramati who is so fierce is covered with
faults and will fall into great sins (mahapatti). I am going to teach him the profound Dharma
{gambhiradharma). Even if he cannot grasp it today, this teaching will earn him buddhahood later." Then
gathering the samgha together, Prasannendriya spoke these stanzas:
Rdga is the Path,
Dvesa and moha are also the Path.
In these three things are included
Innumerable states of buddhahood.
Whoever makes a distinction
Between rdgu-clvesu-moliu and the Path
Departs as far from the Buddha
As the sky is far from the earth.
The Path and rdga-clvesa-moha
Are one and the same thing.
The person who listens to his fears
Wanders far from buddhahood.
Rdga is not born, it does not perish,
It is incapable of calling forth anxiety;
But if the person believes in the atman
Rdga will lead him to bad destinies.
To distinguish existence (bhava) from non-existence (abhava)
Is not freeing oneself from them.
[108a] Recognizing their fundamental identity
Is to win the victory and realize buddhahood.
Prasannendriya spoke seventy more stanzas of this kind and at that moment, 30,000 devaputras found
acquiescence in the doctrine of non-production (anutpattikadharmaksdnti); 18,000 sravakas, detached from
all dharmas, found deliverance (yimoksd). The bodhisattva Agramati fell into hell (nirayd) where he
suffered torments for 10,000,000 years; then he was reborn among humans where he was exposed to
ridicule for 740,000 lifetimes. For innumerable kalpas he never heard the name of the Buddha pronounced,
but, as his sin was becoming lighter, he heard the Buddhist doctrine preached. Becoming a monk
(pravrajita) in search of the Path, he gave up the precepts (Ma) and so, for 603,000 lifetimes, he
completely neglected the precepts. Finally, for innumerable lifetimes, he was a sramana, but although he no
longer neglected the precepts, his faculties remained closed (avrta). - As for the bodhisattva
Prasannendriya, he is the Buddha in the eastern region (purvasydm disi) beyond 100,000 kotis of buddha-
fields (buddhaksetra): his land is called Pao yen (Ratnavyuha) and he himself is named Kouangyuje ming
wang ( Suryalokasamatikramantaraja).
ManjusrT [continued this story], saying to the Buddha: "At that time, I was the bhiksu Agramati; I knew
that I had to endure these immense sufferings." ManjusrT said again: "Those who seek the Path of the three
vehicles (yanatrayamarga) and do not want to undergo such suffering should not reject the [true] nature of
dharmas or give themselves up to hatred (dvesa)."
The Buddha then asked him: "When you heard these stanzas [of Prasannendriya], what benefit did you get
from them?" ManjusrT replied: "When I heard these stanzas, I came to the end of my suffering. From
lifetime to lifetime I had sharp faculties (tiksnendriya) and wisdom (prajna), I was able to find the
profound Dharma (gambhn adharma) and I excelled in preaching the profound meaning (gambhirartha); I
was foremost among all the bodhisattvas."
Thus 'to be skillful in preaching the [true] nature of the dharmas' is 'to excel in saving appropriately
( Yulhcinnvavatdi iiiiakiisala)'
CHAPTER XIII: THE BUDDHA-FIELDS
[k. 7, 108a] Text of the sutra commented on in this chapter [cf. Pancavimsati, p. 5; Satasahasrika, p. 5-7]:
(25) Apramanahuddhakscirapranidhdnaparigrhitair
(26) apiriiiidnalnidd/Hiksciivhudd/idnusnirtisaiiiddlusatatasanutdh/iiniuklifh/iutaii\
(27) aparamitahuddhddhycsanakusalair (28) ndnddrstiparyavastlulnaklcsaprasamanakusalaih,
(29) samadhisatasahasrahhinirhdravikiTdanakiisalair cvainvidhais cdpramdnair gunaih samanvagataih.
Tadyathd Bhadrapdlcna ca bodhisattvcna mahdsattvena Ratndkairna ca Sdrtliavdhaia ca Naradattena ca
Subhaguptena ca Varunadattena ca Indradattcna ca Uttaramatind ca I Isesamatind ca I aidhamanatina ca
Amoghadarsind ca Susainaprasthitciia ca Surikiuniavikramind ca Nityodyuktcna ca Anikslptadhurena ca
Suryagarbhena ca Anupamacintina ca Avalokitesvarena ca Marijusriyd ca Ratnamudrahastena ca
Nityotksiptahastena ca Maitreyena ca bodhisattvena mahasattvena, evampramukhair
anekabodhisattvakotiniyutasatasahasaih sdrdham sarvair ekajatipratibaddhair bhuyastvena
kumarabhutaih.
These bodhisattvas took possession of an infinite number of buddha-fields by means of their aspirations;
they always turned to the concentrations commemorating the Buddhas of innumerable buddha-fields; they
excelled in inviting innumerable Buddhas; they excelled in destroying various wrong views, entanglements
and defilements and were endowed with innumerable qualities of this kind. [The Buddha was thus
accompanied] by the bodhisattva- mahasattvas Badhrapala, etc. (see the listing in the text) at the head of
countless hundreds of thousands of kotinayutas of bodhisattvas who were all in a state of uncertainty
awaiting succession and were still to accede to Buddhahood.
25.BUDDHAKSETRAPRANIDHANAPARIGHRHETA
Siitra: They have taken possession of an infinite number of buddha-fields by means of their aspirations
(apramdnahuddhaksctrapi-anidhdnapai-igrhrtaih).
Sastra: Seeing the wondrous infinities (apramdnavyuha) of the buddha-fields (buddhaksetra),^- these
bodhisattvas formed all kinds of aspirations (pranidhana).
[108b] There is a buddha-field free of all suffering (duhkha) where the question of the threefold evil
(pdpatrya) has never been heard. The bodhisattva who has seen it formulates the following aspiration:
"When I will be Buddha, may my field be thus free of all suffering and may the threefold evil never be
heard of there."
612 For the buddha-fields, see Hobogirin, Butsudo, p. 198-203.
There is a buddha-field adorned with the seven jewels {saptaratndlamkrta) which is always bathed in clear
light (visuddhaprabha) although it has neither sun (suryd) nor moon (candramas). [The bodhisattva who
has seen it] formulates the following aspiration: "When I will be Buddha, may my field be always bathed
thus in pure light."
There is a buddha-field where all the beings practice the ten wholesome actions (dasakusala) and have
great wisdom {mahdprajna), where garments, coverlets and food appear at will. [The bodhisattva who has
seen it] formulates the following aspiration: "When I will be Buddha, may beings in my field also find
garments, coverlets and food at will."
There is a buddha-field where the pure bodhisattvas have the physical appearance of the Buddha with his
thirty major marks (laksand) and his brilliant light, where there is no question of sravakas or
pratyekabuddhas and where women (stri) are completely absent; all the inhabitants follow the profound
marvelous Path of the Buddhas, travel in the ten directions and convert all beings. [The bodhisattva who
has seen it] formulates the following aspiration: "When I will be Buddha, may the beings in my field be
like this."
This is how the bodhisattvas aspire to and attain all the marvels (nanavidhavyuha) of innumerable buddha-
fields, and this is why the sutra says that they have acquired an infinite number of buddha-fields by means
of their aspirations (cipramdnahuddhaksctvapranidhdnaparighrhTia)
Question. - But by virtue of the purity of their conduct and their actions (caritakarmavisuddhi), the
bodhisattvas automatically obtain good rewards (subhavipdka). Why must they first aspire to them in order
to obtain them later? A farmer who has grain, must he still wish for it?
Answer. - Merit (punya) is ineffective without aspiration (praniddna). Making the aspiration
(pranidhdnaprasthdna) is the guide that leads to the result. In the same way, metal-casting requires a
master, the crude metal [itself] being formless (aniyata). Thus the Buddha said: "Some people cultivate
(bhdvayanti) the limited merit of generosity (ddnci) or morality (slid), but are ignorant of the law of merit;
learning that there are wealthy happy people, they always think about them and endlessly wish for [similar]
happiness; at the end of their life, they will be reborn among wealthy happy people. Others cultivate the
limited merit of generosity or morality, but are ignorant of the law of merit; hearing about the existence of
the Caturmaharajika, Trayastrimsa, Yama, Tusita, Nirmanarati and Paranirmitava ivartin gods, they
endlessly wish for [similar] happiness: at the end of their life, they will be reborn among those gods. This
happiness is the result of their wish.""!-' In the same way, it is by aspiring for the pure universes
(visuddhalokadhdtu) that the bodhisattvas acquire them later. Therefore it is thanks to their aspirations
(pranidhdna) that they possess superior fruits (agraphala).
"13 Summary of a suli i n i il< cl lo damipaj tiyo, 're! irths due to the practice of generosity', which may be found ii
Ahguttara, IV, p. 239-241 (tr. Woodward, Gradual Sayings, IV, p. 163-164:
Irr/i nun hliikklii ~ in ttiyo. I i ah i hliikklun icco danam deti s
linn klio hhikkliave attliadanupapattiyo ti.
Furthermore, the adornment of the buddha-fields (buddhaksetrdlamkdra) is important. By itself, cultivation
of the qualities (gund) of the bodhisattva would be unable to realize it; this is why the power of aspiration
is necessary. Thus, an ox (go-) has the strength to draw a cart (ratha) but a driver (nayaka) is needed to
reach the destination. It is the same for aspirations [108c] related to the pure universes: merit is like the ox,
aspiration is the driver.
Question. - [If you are to be believed], one would gain no merit if one did not make an aspiration.
Answer. - Yes! one would gain merit, but not as when the aspiration is added. If one thinks endlessly of
the goal, the merit increases (vardhate).
Question. - If merit entails retribution, people who commit the ten sins^ 14 but do not wish for hell (niraya)
as retribution would not have to suffer hell as punishment [for their faults].
Answer. - Although sin (apatti) and merit (punya) are necessarily retributed (niyatavipdka), only those
who formulate aspirations (pranidhdna) cultivate (hhdvayanti) merit: endowed with the power of the
aspirations, they obtain a great fruit of merit (vipdkaphala). As was said above, sin (apatti) has suffering
(duhkha) as retribution; but all the beings [who commit it] wish to find happiness; nobody wishes for
suffering or hell (niraya). This is why sin has but a limited punishment whereas merit finds unlimited
reward (apramdnavipdka). According to some, even the greatest sinner who has fallen into the Avici hell
will suffer his punishment for one kalpa," 1 ^ whereas the very meritorious person, residing in the sphere of
neither perception-nor-nonperception (nam imjndnd " dyatana), will enjoy his reward for 80,000
great kalpas." 1° In the same way, the bodhisattvas who have aspired to the pure universes
"'' I' 11 ii | illi of action! kusa i l murd ( 1 1 inpura), etc.
"^ According to the sravakas, adherents of the Lesser Vehicle, the damned remain in Avici hell for one kalpa:
The Itivuttaka, II, 18, p. 11, says that the schismatic is cooked in hell foi om kalpa: apayit vih , ho
i i i rayalii pact Ih hismati ills into the abyss he tails into hell loi one
kalpa. Creating schisms, living in irrcligion. he falls away from safety. Having destroyed the unity of the community, he
is cooked in hell for one kalpa."
I T he Buddha declared that D< idatta nil! il hism onld be damned foi om kalp ko Dcvai < la
kappattho utckicclio "Dcvadatta lias fallen into the abyss, fallen into hell for a kalpa: he is unpardonable." this judgment
is repeated in Vinaya, II, p. 202; Majjhima, I, p. 393; Ahguttara, III, p. 402;; IV, p. 160; Itivuttaka, p.85; Tchong a han, T
26(no. 112), k. 27, p. 600c; A neou fong king, T 58, p. 854a.
inaya, 11, p. 394: Ahguttara, V, ] / i /
nirayainlii paccati "Having broken (he unity of the community, he has committed a sin which will last for one kalpa.: he
will cook in hell for a kalpa."
Later scholasticism discusses the length of the kalpa passed in hell: is it a small kalpa (antarakalpa) or a great kalpa
(mahakalpa): cf. Kathavatthu, II, p. 476; P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 116, p. 601c; Kosa, IV, p. 207. on the duration of the
lifespan of the damned, see Kirfcl, Kosniogrupliic der liulcr, p. 205-206.
The lifespan is 20,000 kalpas in akasanantyayatana, 40,000 kalpas in vijnananatyayatana, 60,000 kalpas in
i 1 im in i ii iii i 10 ' Ip i in n ii i nii|n in i l nr i ii n , in bha igra - The first three numbers are given by
Ahguttara, I, p. 267-268; the fourth is given in Kosa, III, p. 174.
(visuddhalokadhatu) will travel the Path for countless kalpas and will attain nirvana, eternal bliss
(nityasukha).
Question. - However, look at the sin that consists of criticizing the Prajnaparamifa, the sin discussed in the
Ni li p'in (Nirayaparivarta): when the antarakalpa [spent in Avici] is ended, the guilty one falls into other
hells (niraya)P^' How can you say that the very great sinner suffers his punishment in hell for just one
kalpa?
Answer. - The Buddhist doctrine, which is intended for beings, uses two [different] ways (mdrgd): the way
of the bodhisattva (read P'ou sa tao = bodhisattvamdrga) and the way of the sravaka (srdvakamdrga). In
the way of the sravaka, the Buddha says that the person guilty of the five dnantarya crimes will suffer hell
(nirayri) for only one kalpa; in the bodhisattva way, the Buddha declares that the enemy of the
Buddhadharma, after having spent an antarakalpa [in Avici], will go to yet other hells to undergo
innumerable sufferings there (read k'ou = duhkha, in place of tsouei - apatti). According to the theory of
the sravakas, a single great merit will be rewarded during 80,000 kalpas; according to the theory of the
bodhisattvas, it will be rewarded during innumerable asamkhyeykalpas.
This is why merit requires aspiration [in order to be truly efficacious]. It is in this sense that the sutra says
that the bodhisattvas are adorned with an infinite number of buddha-fields
(apiamdnabuddhaksetrapranidhanaparigrhita) by means of their aspirations.
26. BUDDHANUSMRTISAMADHI
Siitra: They always turn to the concentration commemorating the Buddhas of numberless buddha-fields
(ai)iximanahucltlluiksetrahutltlhaiuismrtisamaclhisatatasamitahhimukhrhhutaih)
Sdstra: The countless buddha-fields (apramanabuddhaksetra) are the buddha-fields of the ten directions. -
The concentration commemorating the Buddhas (buddhanusmrtisamadhi) is that which, by means of the
"1 ' The Nirayaparivarta is one of the chapters of the Pancavimsati and the Astasahasrika. The passage alluded to here is
in Pancavimsati T 220, k. 435, p. 187c; T 221, k. 9, p. 63a; T 223, k. 11, p. 304c. In the Astasahasrika, T 224, k. 3, p.
441b; T 225, k. 3, p. 488a; T 225, k. 3, p. 523a; T 227, k. 3, p. 550c. Here are a few extracts of the Sanskrit text of the
Astasahasrika, ed. R. Mitra, p. 179-180:
Asyalj klialu puiuih Suhliute prajnapwainitayah pratyakliyaneiui pratiksepena .... iiialutiiti inaliaiiirayaduhkluiiii
ratyaiiuhharis) i I rili izin by rcj iij I i'i li It ii t! i I'raji [ i imil « > il 'iu i mi r it i i/i > i jci
one insults the omniscience of the Buddha Bhagavats. Those [who act in this way] will be banished from the presence of
the Buddha Bhagavats, deprived of the Dharma, sent away by the community. For them this will be the definitive and
complete exclusion from the I liree Jewels. As a result of a sin of such magnitude, they \\ ill be reborn in the great hells for
main' hundreds of millions of kotiniyutas of years. They will pass from one great hell to another great hell. When they
have thus gone from one great hell to another, the destruction of the world by fire will occur. And when this destruction
of the world by fire has taken place, lhc\ will iai! into '.he great hells of other universes. It is in these great hells thai they
will be reborn, hi these great hells they will suffer She great torments of hell."
mind's eye (cittacaksus), perceives all the Buddhas of the ten directions (dasadis) and the three times
(tryuclvan) as if they were present." 1 "
Question. -Then what is the biiddhamismrtisamddhil
Answer. - It is of two types: i) According to the sravaka system, it is to see with the eye of the mind one
single Buddha filling the ten directions; ii) according to the bodhisattva system, it is to recollect all the
Buddhas of the ten directions and the three times[109a] who are present in numberless buddhaksetras.
Also the sutra says that the bodhisattvas always direct themselves towards the concentrations
commemorating the Buddhas of countless buddha- fields.
Question. - The concentrations (samddhi) of the bodhisattvas are of infinite variety; why does the sutra
praise only the bodhisattvas who devote themselves always to the buddhdnusmrtisamddhil
Answer. - i) Because by commemorating the Buddhas these bodhisattvas reach buddhahood. This is why
they devote themselves always to the buddhcimismrtisamddhi.
ii) Furthermore, the buddhdnusmrtisamddhi is able to drive away the afflictions (Mesa) of all sorts and the
sins (dpatti) of former lifetimes (pun ajanma). Other samadhis can drive away desire (raga) but not hatred
(dvesa); others can drive away hatred but not desire, still others can drive away delusion (moha) but not
desire or hatred; finally, others can drive away the threefold poison (trivisa) but not the sins of earlier lives.
only the buddhdnusmrtisamddhi is capable of eliminating all the afflictions and all the sins.
Hi) Finally, the buddhdnusmrtisamddhi has the great merit of being able to save beings and this is precisely
what these bodhisattvas want. The buddhdnusmrtisamddhi is able to destroy sins quickly, better than all the
other samadhis. Here is proof of it:"*" once there were five hundred merchants who had gone to sea to
61 ° Commemoration in general, and especially commemoration of the Buddhas, was practiced already in the Lesser
Vehicle. It was applied applied sometimes to six objects (DTgha,III, p. 250, 280; Anguttara, III, p. 284, 312 seq., 452; V,
p. 329 seq.; Patisambhidha, I, p. 28), sometimes to ten (Anguttara, I, p. 30, 42; Laliravistara, p. 31).
Commemoration of the Buddhas was greatly expanded in the Greater Vehicle; the seven-fold recollection of the
dharmakaya in Samgraha, p. 314-316, and the ten-fold recollection of the qualities of the Tathagata in Bodh. bhumi, p.
91, should be noted.
"1" The story that follows is taken from the legend of Dharmaruci, told in detail in Divyavadana, chap. XVIII, p. 228 6
(tr. H. Zimmci yi (iiistisdier L ru Inn hen. 19 p. I >). It i nti I to kno ih major
outlines of this legend in order to understand (he allusions lhat abound in the story of the Mpps.
In the course of his earlier lifetimes, Dharmaruci had met the future Buddha Sakyamuni: i) Under the Buddha
Ksemamkara, Dharmaruci was a captain in command of a thousand men (sahasrayodhin), while Sakyamuni was a
mci haul who dci i led a -tupa in honor of the Buddha Ksemai i 1 ra (Dv ivadan p. 24 _ L (., < , I !nd( i the Buddha
Dipamkara Dharmaruci i Uiti. friend oi umuiti, the futun sakyamuni, ho offered lot u lo the Buddha Dipamkara
and made his hair into a mat for him. Mati was angry at seeing Dipamkara u alking on the hair of a brahmin: nevertheless.
he entered the Order of the Buddha along with his friend, but, as punishment for his anger, he fell into the hells
(Divyavadana, p. 246-254). We have already come across this famous incident, of which a certain number of references
have been collected; in the sources indicated, Dharmaruci does not appear always under the name Mati but also under She
nanii i. '/ '< (mainh in tin Vlaha* In) hili il imuni ill d uiai Klegl ■) S ncdha. -Hi) Under the
Buddha krakucchanda, Dharmaruci was a merchant's son (vanigdaraka) and became guilty of various crimes: he lived in
carnal sin with his mother, poisoned his lather, stabbed an arhat, killed his mother and burned monasteries before being
welcomed into the Order by a bhiksu tripita 'monk learned in the Tripitaka', who was none other than the future Buddha
Sakyamuni (Divyavadana, p. 254-262; the same story differing in details in Mahavastu, I, p. 243-244). - 4) Under the
Buddha Sakyamuni. Dharmaruci lived two lives:
a) Whereas his former friend became Buddha. Dharmaruci. as punishment for his crimes, hail taken birth as a monstrous
fish thai swallowed everything thai it came across. one day when the fish had opened its mouth about to swallow a ship,
the passengers called upon the Buddha for help. on hearing this cry that recalled to him his past existences and crimes.
the fish Dharmaruci had remorse and closed its mouth. This is the episode told here.
h) Deprived of food, the fish died of hunger anil Dharmaruci was reborn into a family of brahmins in SravastL While
bearing him in her womb, his mother was tormented by ravenous hunger (Divyavadana, p. 234). During his youth, he
could never gel enough to cat (ibid., p. 235): lie was on the point of committing suicide when, at the advice of an upasaka.
he became a monk (ibid., p. 236), There again his appetite proved to be ravenous; in order to pacify him a little, a
householder (grhapati) had him swallow the contents of a wagon loaded with provisions for 500 people (ibid., p. 237-
239). Finally, the Buddha Sakyamuni took Dharmaruci to the sea-shore near the carcass of a giant fish and told him, to
his great amazement, that these fragments of bone (asthisakala) had once belonged to him. Then the Buddha disappeared
miraculously and returned to SravastI, to the Jctavana. leaving Dharmaruci in contemplation before his own skeleton
(ibid., p. 239-240). In the course of his meditation, Dharmaruci traveled over all the stages of the Path and reached
arhathood. Going back over the course of his lives and aware of the favors his old friend had rendered him, he
miraculously returned to the Jctavana. When Sakyamuni saw him, he made only a discrete allusion io the former lifetimes
they had had together anil welcomed him with these simple words: Cirasya Dliariiiarucc .... Sucirasya Dhannaruce ....,
(It h i I i inn i h mi i' li I I n a ry Ion uiu I I i in i i i li I l I
ii 1 ic, Dharmaruci!) And Dharmaruci agreed: Cii i
Bhagavan (Chinese Ekottara, T 125, k. 11, p. 507b; Mahavastu, I, p. 246; Divyavadana, p. 241; Apadana, II,p. 430, v.
20).
Archcologists became interested in the giant fish because of a Bharhut medallion depicting a ship with three people about
to be engulfed by a marine monster (cf Cunningham, Bharhut, pi. XXXIV, 2; A. Foucher, Memoires concernant I'Asic
Orientate, III, p. 8; B. Barua and K.C. Sinha, Bharhut Inscriptions, Calcutta, 1926, p. 61; Luders, Bharhut und die
i ) 1 i i i hi i I n i mil 1 Ih ui d in i in ire more numerous than
is generally thought:
Sanskrit sources: Divyavadana, p. 231-232. - Mahavastu, I, p. 244-246. - Avadanakalpalata, II, p. 777-778, v. 16-25.
Pali sources, hitherto neglected or forgotten: fall Apadana, II, p. 430, v. 13-20, of which (he follow ing is the text:
13. Akarini anantariyah ca ghatayini duttliamanasa
tato cuto malum l * >i in > sudarunam
20. Disva disva muni alia cirani Dhammaruciti mam.
It is Dharmaruci w ho is speaking: "1 committed a heinous sin of immediate retribution and committed murder with an evil
mind; I died and was reborn in the cruel great hell. Plunged into the hells, for a long time I wandered unhappily and never
met die hero Sumcdha. the bull among men. for a kalpa. I was the fish I imiiigala in the ocean: seeing a ship nearby in (he
ocean, I approached it. Seeing me, the frightened merchants called upon the excellent Buddha. Gotama, they cried.
Hearing the great cry which they uttered, I remembered my former propensities. Then I died and was reborn at Savatthi in
a great brahmin family. I was Dhammaruci, filled with horror for any sin; having seen the Lamp of the World, I went, at
search for precious stuffs. They encountered Mo k'ie lo (Makara), king of the fish (matsyaraja).v the
water of the sea rushed into its gapiing mouth and the ship was about to be engulfed. The captain
{karnadhdrdy 3 ^ asked the man in the look-out: "What do you see?" He answered: "I see three suns
(ddityd), ranges of white mountains (avaddtapan atardji) and a waterfall (jalaprapdta) al the entrance to a
the age of seven years, to Jetavana and embraced the monastic life. Three times during the day and three limes during the
night I went to the Buddha and each time he saw me. the Muni said: "II has been a long time, O Dhammaruci."
Chinese sources: Hien yu king, T 202 (no. 23), k. 4, p. 37% (abridged). - Tsa p'i yu king, T 207 (no, 30), p. 529a-b (tr.
Chavannes, Contes, II, p. 51-53): this version is very similar to that of the Mpps. - King liu siang, T 2121, k. 43, p. 226b.
The story of the Mahavastu has been influenced by an episode in the legend of Puma who also rescued his brother arid
live hundred merchants from Surparaka from a storm. He rejoined them miraculously and, seated cross-legged on the
edge of the boat, he calmed the storm raised by the yaksa Mahesvara. The episode is told in Divyavadana, p. 41-42 (tr.
Burnouf, Introduction, p. 228-230) and in the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1448, k. 3, p. 13a. In other sources, the
merchant from Surparaka miraculously saved is called, not Dharukarnin. but Stavakarnika (Avadanasataka, II, p. 166;
Buddhacarita, XXI, v. 22, in E. H. Johnston, The Buddha's Mission and last Journey, Extract of Acta Or., XV, 1937,p. 53,
where Rna stod translates the Sanskrit Stavakarnika).
620 i^is fish is called Mo kie (Makara) in the Hien yu king and the Tsa p'i yu king; timitimihgila on the Bharhut
ii Mli ii ii Vlaha lu iiid ih Divya id iii ( !i i di i mi inn i also occurs): ti i (probabh I
corrci ii d in ingii Ui) in ill i id u i 1 Ipalata inn la in liu p ! ii i
'I'll i i | i i lin i il t of th id makalpala in libel i ill li h ih ii
swallows a fish-swal lower'. Three kinds of fish must be distinguished: i) The ti mi, described as follows in the
Raghuvamsa, XIII, 10:
Sasattvam ada\n uliniukhainhha i vrtananatvat,
ami sirbhis timay ' , In irdhvain i n\ i'ti /alapravdhdn//
"See these sharks (timi) thai suck in the water with the animals in it at the mouths of rivers; suddenly they shul their
gullets and emit columns of water into the air through the holes in then' heads." (tr. L. Rcnou)
mill i i I il 11 > i Indeed, th maral t I 10, 19, has:
timingilas timim girati: gr nigarane.
iii) Tin. mini I i i I f i < n < ar In i illowcr ol
thus there are three kinds offish of different sizes, the smallest of which is swallowed by the middle one, and the middle
one by the largest. This fits in perfectly v\ ith the Hindu concepts of life in the seas. Cf. Divyavadana, p. 230. "In the great
in i in tin Ii m i bi in in du uli d into Ihn c size-ranges l / , in ill. fii t in ill* n 1> 100 00 ind 00 oj iu <n
length; in the second, those 800, 900, 1000 up to 1400 yojanas in length; in the third, those 1500, 1600 and up to 2100
yojanas in length. In the great ocean, these kinds of fish are always eating one another; those in the first size range
t ihumi) ii. di oured by those in the second; those in the second are devoured by those in the third. There is a fish there
called Timihgila [to be corrected to Timingil i ila] that urpa in; tin ilmd < mgc comes up to the surface. When it opens
its mouth, a funnel of water is sucked into it violently: drawn in by this mass of water, fish of all kinds, turtles, sea horses,
dolphins, whales, etc. pass from its mouth into its belly. When it moves, it is so huge that its head, even from afar, seems
to be a mountain as high as the sky and its two eyes from afar arc like two suns in the sky."
" 21 The captain (kanunlluira) or chief of the merchants (sanhavciha) is called Sthapakarnika (variants: Thapakanji,
Tluij ' ' , ' I I in th 1 ih i istu f tin I ikarnika of tin idanasataka ind tin I uddha irita
cave.""^ The captain shouted: "It is the Makara, the king of the fish; he is holding his mouth agape; the
first sun is the real sun, the other two suns are his eyes (aksi); the white mountains are his teeth (danta): the
waterfall is the sea water that is rushing into his mouth."^3 L e ( each of you call upon the gods for help."
Then each of the men called upon the god whom he worshipped, 24 j-, u t w ; m no success. "25 Among them
there was an upasaka who observed the five precepts (pancasiksdpadaparigrhita upasaka)^® who said to
the others: "We should all cry out together Na mo fo (Namo buddhdya); the Buddha is unsurpassable
(anuttara); he will know how to help us." All the passengers unanimously (ekacittena) agreed and with one
voice (samaravena) they cried: Namo buddhdya (Homage to the Buddha). Now in an earlier lifetime
(purvajanma), this fish had been a bad disciple of the Buddha (dulisF/cisrclvcika);"^' he still had the
memory of his former lifetimes {purvanivdsdnusmrtijndnd). Hearing the name of the Buddha pronounced,
he felt remorse, closed his mouth and the sailors were saved. °
If the simple commemoration of the Buddha (buddhanusmrti) can thus efface grave sins and save from
danger, what are not [the benefits] of the concentration commemorating the Buddhas
(buddhanusmrtisamadhi)!
iv) Moreover, the Buddha is king of Dharma (dharmardja), while the bodhisattvas are but the captains.
Worship and respect belong to the Buddha Bhagavat alone; that is why we must always commemorate the
Buddhas.
"22 j n the Divyavadana, p. 231, the captain i the followii planatioi /
tiinitiiningilahhayain suryavad aralokyete etav aksitarakau.
"2-> In the Tsa p'i yu king, the look-out says: "I see two suns that appear above; below is a white mountain; in the middle
is a black mountain."
"24 j n the Divyavadana, p. 232, the merchants invoked Siva, Varuna, Kuvera, Mahendra, Lfpendra; in the Mahavastu, p.
245, Siva, Vaisravana, Skandha, Varuna, Varna, Dhrtarastra, Virudhaka, Virupaksa, India, Brahma, Samudradcvata: in
the Hicn \ u king, some invoke the Buddha, the Dharma and tin m in oth i ill u] >i ill A> mi of 111 in iintain md
rivers, their parents, their v\ives and children. Inch brothers [as in the legend oiT'urna] and (heir servants.
"25 The Tsa p'i yu king says " "The stronger their prayers, the faster the boat went."
"26 jjjg Divyavadana and the Hien yu king simply say 'an upasaka'. The Mpps mentions specifically thai he held the l'i\ e
precepts; not to kill, not to steal, to abstain from forbidden sexual relations, not to lie and not to partake of alcohol.
Scholars discuss the question of knowing if these obligations arc essential to the quality of upasaka. Cf. L. de La Vallec
Poussin, Notes sur le chemin du Nirvana, BCLS, session 5 Jan, 1925, no. 1, p. 20, n. 2. - In the Tsa p'i yu king, it is the
ship's captain the sarthavaha, who advises them to call upon the Buddha. - In the Mahavastu, p. 245, it is the ayusmal
I'urnaka: hearing the merchants invoking their deities, he arose from the mountain Tundaturika into the air and stood
il • tin 'iij ' !| ' '"' ' ' inl ' '' '' l0 ' >! ' " '" ' '" llhM ! l "' n . ! h™ "' igavat. I ui.i il u>ld 111 m (I ii n« i i it tin
Bhagavat, but a simple sravaka; he advised them to cry out as with a single voice Namo buddhasya.
"2 ' In the Divyavadana, p. 232, the merchants' cry first reached the ears of the Buddha who was at Srasvastl in the
.Ictavana, and the Buddha then transmitted ii to the giant fish.
"2° We have seen above that the fish died of hunger and was reborn at Sravastl; this was Dharmaruci's last life; he was
converted and attained arhathood.
v) Moreover, by always commemorating the Buddhas, we acquire all kinds of qualities (guna) and benefits
(artha). In the same way that a great minister (mahdmdtya) who has received special favors always
commemorates his master, so the bodhisattvas, who owe qualities of all kinds and immense wisdom to he
Buddha, feel gratitude and ceaselessly commemorate the Buddha.
[109b] You may ask why the bodhisattvas always commemorate the Buddhas instead of practicing the
other samddhis as well. But to say that they always commemorate the Buddhas does not mean that they
neglect the other samddhis; what it does mean is that they practice the buddhanusmrtisamddhi more often.
vi) Finally, the sutra has already mentioned the samadhis of emptine | ) Mgnlessness (dnimitta)
and wishlessness (apranihita), but did not say anything about the buddhanusmrtisamddhi. That is why it is
spoken of here.
27. APARIMITABUDDHADHYESANAKUSALA
Sutra: They excelled in inviting innumerable buddhas (apai-imitahuclclhuclhyesunukusaluih).
Sastra: The invitations"^" [which they address to the Buddhas] are of two types:"™
" It is understood that, before and after he has entered into the bhumis, the bodhisattva must cultivate the awakened
mind by the practice of the six or ten paramitas. in ordei to reach the culmination of his career, he must then impose upon
himself painful efforts that will be prolonged over three, seven, or even thirty three asamkhycyakalpas (cf. Samgraha,
p.209-211;Siddhi,p.731-733).
In actual fact, however, it seems thai the cultivation of the awakened mind is less complicated than it seems at first sight.
In order to progress in his career, it will suffice that the bodhisattva faithfully accomplish certain rituals, to which the
Mahayana theoreticians will attach inci easing importance.
A text that makes up part of the Ratnakuta. the Ugradattapariprccha (cited in the Siksasamuccaya, p. 290) recommends
that the bodhisattva. pure and clad in clean clothes, three times during the day and three times during (he night, carry out
the Triskandha, namely, the confession of sins, acceptance of the good and invitation to the Buddhas. Here is the text:
Aryogrdattapariprcclidydni hi triratrc trklivasasya ca papaclesaiHipuiiyaiiuniocUiiia-lnuUlliadliycsanakliyah.
The Mpps also mentions this threefold practice and. according to the explanations it gives here, it appears thai the
Triskandha consists of the following practices:
i) I'dpadcsana, confession of sins,
ii) Buddlianusii i omm n ration rejoi in md exhort i nofl < Buddhas.
mi i i.l in nil] iin the Buddhas to preach the Dharma and prayer to the Buddhas to delay their entry
into nirvana.
But it is Santideva who recommends these spiritual exercises mainly in his Bodhicaryavatara, chap. II-III, and his
Siksamuccaya, p. 290-291 (tr. Bendall-Rousc, p. 263-265), there the threefold practice, so-called because it is done three
times during the day and three times during the night, consists of at least six parts:
i) Vandana and pujana: veneration and worship of the Buddhas, etc.
ii) Saranagamanci, taking refuge in the Buddhas, etc., and pdpadesana, confession of sins.
iii) Punyanumodana, rejoicing in virtue.
iv) Adhyesand, invitation to the Buddhas to preach the Dharma.
i) When a Buddha becomes buddha, the bodhisattvas ceremoniously invite him three times during the night
and three times during the day: throwing their upper garment over one shoulder (ekcimsam uttardsangam
krtvd), with joined palms (afijalim pranamya), they say to him: "In the buddha-fields (buddhaksetra) of the
ten directions (dasadis), countless Buddhas, once they have become buddha, do not turn the wheel of
Dharma (dharmacakra). I, so-and-so, invite all the Buddhas to turn the wheel of Dharma for beings to save
them all." 631
ii) When the Buddhas are about to abandon their life of immense duration (aparimitaAus) and prepare to
enter nirvana, the bodhisattvas, three times during the day and three times during the night, throw their
upper garment over one shoulder and with joined palms, say: "I, so-and-so, invite the countless Buddhas of
the buddha-fields of the ten directions to remain for a long time in this world, for countless kalpas, for the
salvation and welfare of all beings. ""-'^
This is how the bodhisattvas invite innumerable Buddhas.
Question. - The Buddhas have a pattern according to which they must preach the Dharma and save all
beings. Whether they are invited or not, this pattern remains the same. Then why must they be invited?
Besides, although it is possible to invite the Buddhas who are close by, how is it possible to invite the
Buddhas of the innumerable buddha-fields of the ten directions? They cannot even be seen!
Answer. - i) Although the Buddhas are obliged to preach the Dharma and need no human invitation, the
person who invites them gains merit (punya) by doing so. In the same way, even though the king finds
plenty of delicacies to eat at home, many people still invite him in order to gain his favor and obtain his
advice.
v) Yacand, prayer to the Buddhas to delay their entry into nirvana.
vi) Parinamand, dedication of merit for the good of beings.
Bui, as Santideva comments, many of these exercises are mixed up one with another: the vandana is included in the
papaclcsaiia. arid Ihc vaccina is joined to the aciliycsana (cf. Siksasamuccaya, p. 290). [In Tibetan, this practice is called
Phung-po gsum-pahi inch]
"-"' Namcl u/lt] , in il ilion ind i icaiia prayci
"•' 1 Formula ol ilv icl/n < in Hindi i inpranidhana, v. 10: Ye ca dasaddisi lokapraclipa .... cakru anuttara
vartanatdyai.
"And these lamps of the world, in the ten directions, who have attained enlightenment and overcome detachment. 1 invite
all these protectors to turn the unsurpassable wheel [of Dharma].
In the Bodhicaryavatara, III, v 4 Sana i , > u I , un liacl cluhkl \ V nil ji incd
palms I request the perfect Buddhas of all the directions to light the lamp of Dharma for those whom delusion has caused
them to fall into misfortune."
"■^ 2 Formula of yacand in the Bhadracarlpranidhana, v. 11: Ye pi ca nirvrti dcirsitiikciincis sarvajagasya hitdya
Mikliaya.
"And so with joined palms, I beg these Buddhas who wish to manifest (heir nirvana, thai they w ail for a number of kalpas
as large as the number of grains of sand in a [buddha]-ficld for the good and welfare of the entire world."
hi ill Bodhichai ivatara. 111, \ * u in < < / ca\ , ltd, I < ' ' m\ I il ntrcat th i
Victorious ones who wish to eniM .in 1 ina that thc\ , lit for cndli 1 ilp Ii M his world become blind."
if) Moreover, if one feels friendship (maitricitta) for beings and one wishes them happiness, one gains
great merit even though these beings do not get any. It is the same when one invites the Buddhas to preach
the Dharma.
iif) Furthermore, there are Buddhas who have not been invited to preach and who have entered directly into
nirvana without having preached the Dharma. Thus, in the Fa houa king (Saddharmapundarikasutra), the
Bhagavat Yo pao (Prabhutaratna), whom nobody had invited [to preach], entered nirvana directly but, later,
his fictive nirmanakaya and his stupa made of the seven jewels (saptaratna) appeared simultaneously in
order to confirm the prediction of the Saddharmapundarikasutra. " - Similarly also the Buddha Siu chan
tofo (Susantabuddha): as his disciples had not yet ripened the seeds of good (aparipakvakusalamuld) [and
were consequently unable to grasp his teaching], he entered directly into nirvana, but, to save beings, he
left [behind] a fictive Buddha (nirmanabuddhd) which lasted for a kalpa. - The present Buddha
Sakyamuni, having become buddha, waited 57 days before preaching the Dharma. ^4 He said to himself:
633 Cf. Saddharmapundarika, chap. XI: Stupasamdarsana, p. 248-249 (tr. Burnouf, p. 150-151; Kern, p. 236-237). When
Sakyamuni was in the process of preaching the holy Dharma, a precious stupa appeared in the sky above the assembly. A
voice came from it which praised Sakyamuni who opened the stupa and there found the preserved body of Prabhutaratna:
Athakhalubhwci \ vain tas tasyam I \a\asyasravanayehagatah.
"Then at that moment the blessed Tathagata Sakyamuni, seeing all the assembled Tathagatas miraculously created from
his own body..., arose from his seat and flying up, remained suspended in the air. The four assemblies all together arose
from their scats and stood, palms joined in respect, with eyes fixed on the face of the Bhagavat. Then v\ iih his right hand,
the Bhagavat di\ ided this great stupa made of precious stones which was suspended in the air; and having div ided it, iie
opened the two halves completely. lust as the two halves of the gate of a great city open up when the piece of wood
holding them closed is removed, so the Bhagavat. ha\ ing separated this great stupa into two parts with the index finger of
his right hand, opened it. Hardly had this great stupa of precious stones been opened, when the blessed Tathagata
Prabhutaratna appeared seated cross-legged on his throne, his limbs dried out but his body not decreased in size, as if
deep in meditation; and ai this same moment, he pronounced the following words: "Good, good, O bles ed . i 1 ui uni fl
is well said, this explanation of the Lotus of the holy Dharma which you are about to make; it is good, O blessed
i 1 I i "i' ili i) i.u ,,il in this Lotus of the holy Dharma to the assemblies; I too, O Bhagavat, have come to hear this
Lotus of the holy Dharma." (tr. Burnouf)
" 34 These 57 days that separated the enlightenmenl from the first sermon are problematic chronologically in the
biography of the Buddha. The sources do not agree on lite number of w ccks that elapsed bclw ecu these two events.
The Pali Vinaya (vol. I) counts four weeks which the Buddha spent respectively: 1) under the bodhirukkha (p. 1); 2)
under the ajapdlanigrodha (p. 3); 3) under the mucalinda (p. 3); 4) under the rdjdyatana (p. 3).
The Nidanakatha (p. 77-80) counts seven weeks that the Buddh i p nt n )i livel li it tin i >' , I In lh<
aiiimisacetiya; 3) by the ratanacankamacetiya; 4) by the ratanagharacetiya; 5) under the ajapaUaugrodha; 6) with
i i ui ! i li ; ' I a I [ i i i I ' ') ill n> i li i in I li di nil ill nib I
the Buddha stayed in the ICIurapala park.
The Mahavastu (vol. Ill) also counts seven weeks. The Buddha passed the first two under the bodhidruma (p. 273 and
281): he spent the third in dirglia carikraina (p. 281). [Hiring the last four, lie stayed respectively in the dwelling of the
naga ICala (p. 300), in the dwelling of the naga .Vlucilinda (p. 300), under the ajapakiiiyagrodlui (p. 301), in the
ksirikavaiia at the Bahudcvata-caitya (p. 303). flic Ylahavastu concludes by saying: "'thus the Bhagavat spent the seven-
week retreat during 49 days."
"My Dharma is profound (gambhira), difficult to penetrate {durvighdya) and difficult to understand
(duranubodha). Beings attached to worldly things (alayarama) are unable to understand it."635
[109c] Nevertheless, Sakyamuni did not enter into silence in the bliss of nirvana. At that time, the
bodhisattvas and the Sakradevendra and Brahmadevaraja gods came to bow down before him with joined
palms (anjalim prcincnnyci) and invited him to turn the wheel of Dharma (dharmacakra) for beings. The
Buddha accepted their invitation in silence and then went to Po lo nai (VaranasT) in the Lou lin (Mrgadava)
where he turned the wheel of Dharma. Under these circumstances, how can you say that it is useless to
invite the Buddhas?
iv) Finally, it is customary for the Buddhas to consider beings, not in order to know whether they are noble
or lowly, light or heavy, but to know if they invite them. It is as a result of this invitation that they preach
the Dharma. Even if beings did not invite the Buddha face-to-face, the Buddha, who always knows their
minds, hears their invitation. Supposing even that the Buddhas do not see and do not hear [those who invite
them], there would still be the same merit of inviting them; how much more so when they are able to see
you and hear you.
Question. - If it is so advantageous to invite the Buddhas, why invite them only on the two occasions
indicated above?
Answer. - It is not necessary to invite them in other circumstances, but in those two, it is indispensable to
do so.
If the Buddhas preached the Dharma without being invited, the heretics (tirthika) might say: "Since his
Buddha quality definitely has been established, does he not speak so much and act so much out of clinging
to his own system (dharmabhinivesa)!" That is why, in order to teach, the Buddhas should be invited.
The Lalitavistara (p. 377, 379-381) locates the seven weeks as follows: The Buddha spent the first week seated on the
bodhi-scat; he spent the second in I \ha i krann durin thi third, he stayed on the bodhimanda; in the fourth, he
accomplished the dahara cankraina. During the last three, he stayed successively with Mucilinda. under (he
/ / nd finally under th i i I L < nd p. 236 seq.
At the end of the seventh week, exactly 49 days after his enlightenment, at the invitation of Brahma Buddha agreed to
preach the Dharma. But according to the Mpps, the first sermon at Benares did not take place until the 57th day.
Therefore eight days elapsed between Brahma's imitation and the sermon at Benares. From the Mahavastu (III, p. 324-
328) and the Lalitavistara, p. 406-407 (tr. Foucaux, p. 338-339), we know that this week was spent by the Buddha
traveling from Gaya to VaranasT. According to the Nidanakatha, p. 81, having remained a few more days at the
hodliimanda. the Buddha resolved to be at Benares on the day of the full moon of the Asadha month (June July). on the
fourteenth, he arose early in the morning and traveled 18 yojanas so that he arrived the same day towards evening at
Rsipatana near Benares. Thai same evening, lie preached the Dharmacakrapravartanasutra.
"■" Cf. Vinaya, I, p. 4 n in /' / /
sthanam; Wou fen liu, T 1321, k. 15, p. 103c; Sseu fen liu, T 1428, k. 31, p. 786c.
on the enigmatic formula alayarama, alarata, alayasaininudita, see also .Vlajjhima. I, p. 167; Samyutta, I, p. 136;
Ahguttara, II, p. 131. - We know that the V ijnanavadin school resorted to these texts to prove the existence of the store-
consciousnes i i m n ol cri] ure. Si i raha < ufihi p 180; S. Levi, Autour.!' ;• ' ighosa. IA,
Oct.-Dec, 1929, p. 281-283.
People might also say: "If he knows the [true] nature of dharmas, he should not covet a long life. By
remaining so long in the world, he is in no hurry to enter into nirvana!" This is why prayers [for him to stay
here] are needed. If the Buddhas preached without being invited, people would say that the Buddha is
attached to his own system and wants to make it known to people. This is why the Buddhas must await
people's invitation to turn the wheel of Dharma.
The heretics (tirthika) themselves are attached to their own systems; with or without invitation they preach
to people. The Buddha has no attachment or fondness for his doctrine; it is out of compassion (karuna) for
beings that he preaches when he is invited; if he were not invited, he would not turn the wheel of Dharma.
Some verses say:
The Buddhas say: "What is true?
What is false?
The true and the false
Are both non-existent.
Thus the truth consists
Of not being discursive about the dharmas."
It is out of compassion for beings
That they turn the wheel of Dharma.
Moreover, if the Buddha preached the doctrine without being invited, he would have preached his own
discoveries (pratibhd), his own beliefs (grdha) and would certainly have answered the fourteen difficult
questions. But when the gods invited him to preach, where it was a matter only of cutting through old age
(jam), sickness (vyddhi) and death (maraud), he did not engage in controversial questions
(nigrahasthdna); this is why he did not answer the fourteen difficult questions and avoided any criticism.
For this reason he must be invited to turn the wheel of Dharma.
Furthermore, although born among humans, the Buddha nevertheless acts as a Mahapurusa: despite his
great compassion (karuna).. he does not preach without being invited. If he preached without an invitation,
he would be criticized by the heretics (tirthika); therefore first he must be invited. [110a] Again, the
heretics belong to the sect of the god Brahma and, if Brahma himself invites the Buddha, the heretics give
in.
Finally, the bodhisattvas regularly accomplish a threefold practice (triskandha) three times during the day
and three times during the night: 1) In the morning, throwing the upper garment over one shoulder
(ekdmsam uttardsi ngam h tva) and with joined palms (krtdhjali), they pay homage to the Buddhas of the
ten directions, saying: "I, so-and-so, in the presence of the Buddhas of the ten directions, confess the faults
and sins of body, speech and mind that I have committed for countless kalpas, in my present lifetime and in
past lifetimes. I vow to wipe them out and not to commit them again.""-'" During the night, they repeat this
formula three times. 2) They commemorate the Buddhas of the ten directions and the three times, their
activities (carita), their qualities (guna) and those of their disciples. They praise them (anumodante) and
exhort them {samadapayanti). 3) They supplicate the Buddhas of the ten directions to turn the wheel of
Dharma and invite them to remain in the world for countless kalpas to save all beings. By accomplishing
this threefold practice, the bodhisattvas gain immense merit and approach buddhahood. This is why they
must invite the Buddhas.
28.NANADRSTIPARYAVASTHANAKLESAPRASAMANAKUSALA
Sutra: They excelled in destroying various wrong views, entanglements and afflictions
(ndnddrstiparyaYasthdnaklcsaprasamanakusalaih).
Sdstra: A. There are many kinds of wrong views {drsti):
1) Two types of drsti: the view of eternal ism (sdsvatadrsti) and the view of nihilism (ucchedadrsti).^'
Sasvatadrsti is an adherence of the mind (cittaksdnti) which holds the five aggregates (skandha) to be
eternal (nitya); ucchedadrsti is an adherence of the mind which holds the five aggregates to be perishable.
Beings often fall into these two wrong views. The bodhisattvas who have suppressed them within
themselves are also able to suppress them in others in order to establish them in the Middle Way
( madhyamd pratipad).
2) Two types of drsti: the view of existence (bhavadrsti) and the view of non-existence (vibhavadrsti)?™
3) Three types of drsti: adherence to all dharmas (sarvadharmaksdnti), non-adherence to all dharmas
(sarvadharmesv aksdntih), both adherence and non-adherence to all dharmas (sarvadarmesu
ksdntyaksdntih).
4) Four types of drsti:®™ j) The world is eternal, the world is not eternal, the world is both eternal and
non-eternal, the world is neither eternal nor non-eternal (sasvato lokah, asasvato lokah, sasvatas
edsdsvatas ca lokah, naivasasvatas ndsasvatals ca lokah). ii) The world and the self are finite, infinite,
both finite and infinite, neither finite nor infinite (ante/vein 'okas cdtmd ca. anantavan lokah cdtmd ca,
antavdms canaiitavdms ca /okas cdtmd ca. naivdntavan ndnatavams ca lokas cdtmd ca). Hi) The Tathagata
[or the saint free of desire] exists after death, does not exist after death, both exists and does not exist after
death, neither exists nor does not exist after death (bhavati tathdgatah param marandn, na bhavati
"■'" Formula of papadesana in Bhadracanpranidhana, v. 8: vac ha krtwn mayi papa hliavcyya .... tain prathlcsayaim aim
sarvam. "And the sins committed by me, under the impulse of attachment, hatred or delusion, of speech or of mind, I
confess them all." See also a more developed formula in Bodhicaryavatara, I. p. 154; II, p. 240; III. p. 130; Kosa, V, p.
17. IX, p. 265.
637 This is antagrdhadrsti: Ahguttara, I, p. 154; II, p. 240; III, p. 130; Kosa, V, p. 17; IX, p. 265.
638 Cf. Samyutta, III, p. 93; Majjhima, I, p. 65; Anguttara, I, p. 83; Kosa, IX, p. 265.
" 3 " one falls into these drstis when one comes to a decision about the 'fourteen difficult questions'.
tathagaiah parcini nuinincid. bhavati ca na bhavati ca tcitluigcitcili parcnii maranan, naiva bhavati na na
bhavati ca tatluigatali parani iiiarancit).
5) Five types of drstvP^ i) satkayadrsti (view related to the accumulation of perishable things, i.e., the
five skandhas), ii) antagrdhadrsti (view of believing in the extreme theories of eternalism or nihilism); Hi)
mithyadrsti (wrong view which consists of denying that which really does exist), iv) drstiparamarsa
(holding wrong views in high esteem), v) sUavratapardmarsa (holding morality and disciplinary practices
in exaggerated esteem).
These various views increase in number up to 62 drstigata.^
These views are brought about by various causes and conditions (hetupratyaya), are discovered by various
sciences (jnanaparyaya), are understood by various teachers (dcdryd); they constitute all kinds of fetters
(samyojand) under various characteristics and cause diverse sufferings to beings. This is why they are
called 'various views' (ndnddrsti). The meaning of the word drsti will be explained fully later.
B. There are ten manifestly active defilements (paryavasthana):^^ i) anger (krodha), ii) hypocrisy
(mraksa), Hi) lethargy (stydna), iv) languor (iiiiclcllia). v) regret (kaiikrtva). vij agitation (auddhatya), vii)
shamelessness (cihrikya), viii) non-embarrassment (anapatrdpya), i.x) avarice (mutsarya), x) envy, (irshya).
- Moreover, because they fetter the mind, all the afflictions are called manifestly active defilements
(paryavasthana).
C. The afflictions (klesa) are called Mesa (in Chinese, fan nao) because they vex (fan) and torment (nao)
the mind.
[110b] There are two types of klesa: inner attachment (ddhydtmikasanga) and outer attachment
(bdhyasanga). The klesas of inner attachment are the five drstis, doubt (vicikitsd), pride (inana), etc.; the
klesas of outer attachment are lust (rdga), haired (,</tv«/>, etc. Ignorance (avidyd) is both inner and outer.
There are two other types of bonds (bandhana): those that depend on craving (trsndpaHta) and those that
depend on wrong views (drstipatita).
There are also three types of bandhana: those that depend on lust (rdgaptita), those that depend on hatred
(dvesapatita) and those that depend on delusion (mohapatita)."^ They are called klesa.
Some people list ten paryavasthana^; others, 500. "44 . The klesas are called 'all the fetters (samyojand).
There are nine samyojanas, seven anusayas and a total of 98 bandhauas.^
640 Kosa, V,p. 15-18.
641 These 62 drstigatas are described in the Brahmajalasiilra: they have their root in satkayadrsti.
642 Kosa, V, p. 90.
643 Kosa, p. 87).
644 The Vaibhasikas claim 10 paryasvasthanas (Kosa,V, p. 90, others, 500 (P'i ni mou king, T 1463, k. 8, p. 850,
Hobogirin, Bound, p. 124).
1 Hi i i ( i pratigha, mana, avid drsti mati ( osa V, p. 2). - They make 7 by dividing raga ir
two (Kosa, V, p. 3; Digha, III, p. 254, 282; Ahguttara, IV, p. 9; Samyutta, V, p. 60; Vibhahga, p. 383; Jnanaprasthana,
According to the K'ia tchan yen tseu a p'i fan (Katyayanlputrabhidharma), these ten paryavasthanas and
98 bandhanas make 108 &/eias." 4 " r n fte Tou tseu eul a p'i fan (Vatslputriyabhidharma), the samyojanas
are the same in number, but the paryavasthanas are 500.
The bodhisattvas destroy all these passions in themselves by all kinds of means (upaya), and they excel in
destroying those of others as well.
Thus, at the time of the Buddha, three brothers heard speak of three courtesans (vesya): Ngan lo p'o li
(AmrapaEi) of VaisalT, Siu man na (Sumana) of SravastT and Yeou po lo p'an na (Utpalavarna) of
Rajagrha. Hearing everyone praise the incomparable beauty of these three women, the three brothers
thought of them day and night and could not get them out of their minds. In dreams, they possessed them.
once awakened, they said to themselves: "These women did not come to us and we did not go to these
women; nevertheless, pleasure was produced. Because of them we woke up. Are all dharmas like that?"" 4 '
Then they went to the bodhisattva P'o fo p'o lo (Bhadrapala) to ask him about this. Bhadrapala said to
them: "All dharmas are indeed like that; they are all the result of mind." Then he skillfully (upayend)
explained the emptiness (sunyatd) of dharmas to the three men, and all three became bodhisattvas without
regression (avaivartikd). The bodhisattvas use all kinds of tricks in this way to preach the Dharma to
beings and suppress their wrong views (drsti), manifst active defilements (paryavasthana) and klesas. This
is what the su plains by saying: ndiuidrsi avastha ipra uikusal
29. SAMADHISATASAHASRABHINIRHARAVIKRIDANAKUSALA
Sutra: They excelled in producing and playing with a hundred thousand samadhis
(sanuldliisatasaliasrahhinirhdravikiTdanakusalaih).
1543, k. 4, p. 784c). - They make 10 by dividing drsti into five (Kosa, V, p. 9). They make 98 by counting the 36
amisayas in kamadhatu, 31 in rupadhatii raid 31 in arupyadhatu (Prakaranapada, k. 3. p. 637c: Jhanaprasthana, T 1543, k.
4, p. 784c; Kosha, V, p. 9).
646 For these 108 klesas, see Przyluski, Asoka, p. 323.
647 Example of a story often used in Madhyamaka treatises.
Pitriputra im ma ulra itcd ii i 1 i inn i p Tatra nialiai vo ' vapno a visayah ....
vighdtasya klamathasya bhdgTsydt.
Bhavasamkrantisutra cited in .Vladh. avatara, p. 127 (tr. Lav., Museon, 1910, p. 319): "Similarly. O great king, a sleeping
man die im that In pi < i bi iiiliful oman ind i ikcncd from hi leep h ihinl fhci ,.ith regret. What do you
Ihi lk, O great kin I W i i m in In ha\in dn i m d ill il h p < d ih i i iiiliful im n thin] il nl li i ith
regie! after he has woken up from his sleep?" - "No, O Bhagavat. And why? Because, O Bhagavat, in the dream, (he
beautiful woman does not exist, is not experienced, still less so, the possession of the woman. Nevertheless, this man will
be tired out and exhausted." Cf. the Chinese versions in Bhavasamkranti, cd. N.A. Sastri, p. 10-11.
The \ ijhanava-ins also explain how, in the absence ofan\ object, there can be accomplishment offline lion (/ vol i
as in i di im I v im ika, p. 4 uno \ i iyti sUUIiieti veditin ukravisw /
/ i i lb i omplishmcnt of function is maintained [in th I nee of ai i I obj i j ich lischa n
the course of a dream: thus, in a dream and without any sexual coupling, there is discharge characterized by e:
Sdstra: By the power of dhyana and mental discipline (cittaniyama), by the power of pure wisdom
(visuddhaprajha) and skillful means (upaya), these bodhisattvas produce (abhinirharanti) all kinds of
samadhis.
What is samadhi? It is the fixing on one point of a good mind (kusalacittaikdgrata), the immobility of the
mind (cittclcalata).
There are three kinds of samadhis: i) samadhi with vitarka (investigation) and vicdra (analysis); ii) samadhi
without vitarka but with vicdra; Hi) samadhi with neither vitarka nor vicdra. °
There are four other kinds of samadhi: i) samadhi connected with the world of desire (kamadhdtvavacara);
ii) samadhi connected with the world of form (riipadhatvacara), Hi) samadhi connected with the formless
world (drupyadhdtvacara); iv) samadhi not connected with anything.
Here it is a question of the bodhisattva samadhis that have already been mentioned. They are not as
complete (paripurna) as those of the Buddhas. The bodhisattvas produce them (abhinirharanti) by the
practice and cultivation of effort (prayatnd).
Question. - Why do the bodhisattvas produce (abhinirharanti) and play with (vikridanti) these [110c]
hundred thousand samadhis?
Answer. - Beings are innumerable (apramdna) and the functioning of their minds (cittapravrtti) differs:
some have sharp (tlksna) faculties , others have weak (jnrdu) faculties; the fetters (samyojana) are heavy
among some, light among others. Therefore the bodhisattvas use the hundred thousand kinds of samadhis
to cut through the disturbances of the passions [among beings]. Thus, those who wish to enrich the poor
(daridra) must first gather all sorts of wealth (vasu) and provisions (sambhdra) to be able then to go and
help the poor; those who wish to cure sick people (vyadhita) must first prepare all kinds of drugs
(bhasajya) to be able then to cure the sick. In the same way, the bodhisattvas who wish to save beings use
hundreds of thousands of samadhis.
Question. - Why are they not content with just producing (abhinirhdra) these samadhis, but they also play
(vikrulana) with them?
The bodhisattvas who produce these samadhis amuse themselves by entering into (pravesa) and emerging
from (vyutthdna) them; this mastery (vasita) of the samadhis is called play (vikridana). This play is not
attachment to desire (trsndbandhana); it is a mastery (vasita). Thus the lion (simha) who appears as a
fearless sovereign I i i i) imong jazelli (m i) • tiled n • arati (the one who plays with the gazelles).
In the same way, these bodhisattvas who have mastery of these samadhis go in and out of them at will.
[Other people do not have such mastery over the samadhis]: some enter into them at will but remain there
and do not emerge easily; others remain there at will but do not enter and emerge freely; others enter and
remain freely but do not emerge easily; finally, others remain and emerge at will, but do not enter freely.
Because the bodhisattvas have the threefold power over these samadhis of entering, remaining there and
emerging at will, the surra says that they produce a hundred thousand samadhis and play with them.
8 See references in Kosa, VIII, p. 183.
Sutra: These bodhisattvas were endowed with countless qualities of this type (evamvidhais capramanair
gunaih samanvagataih).
Sastra: As these bodhisattvas surround the Buddha, the person who would like to glorify their qualities
(guna), were he to do so for countless kotis of kalpas. would be unable to exhaust the subject. This is why
they are endowed with innumerable qualities.
THE 22 MAIN BODHISATTVAS649
Sutra: These were the bodhisattvas:
1. P'o t'op'o lo or Chan cheou (Bhadrapala)
2. La na hie lo or Pal tsi (Ralnakara)
3. Tao che (Sarthavaha)
4. Sing to (Subhagupta, according to the Pancavimsati; Guhagupta, according to the
Satasahasrika)
S.Nalo ta (Naradatta)
6. Chouei t'ien (Varunadatta)
7. Tchou t'ien (Indradatta)
8. Tayi (Uttaramati)
9. F;'y/(Visesanati)
10. Tseng yi (Vardhamanamati)
1 1 . Pou hiu kien (Amoghadarsin)
12. Chan tsin (Susamprasthita)
"49 These principal bodhisattvas constitute merely a stereotypical list and their number is not fixed at 22, even in the
versions of the Pancavimsati. Moksala's list has 23 (T 221, k. 1, p. la-b); the Sanskrit text ed. by N. Dutt (p. 5) and
Dharmaraksa's translation ( 1 222, k. 1, p. 147a-b) have 24; Hinan tsang's translation (T 220, k. 401, p. lc) has 26. The
Satasasrika, p. 6-7) has even more. on the other hand, the first 16 bodhisattvas on the list, all living in the world, make up
the homogeneous group of s«/«.v« satpwusah, v\hich anneals a number of times in the Greater Vehicle: Won lcang cheou
king, T 360, K. 1, p. 265cl6; Visesacintabrahmapariprccha, T 585, k. 1, p. Ial4; T 586, k. 1, p. 33b9; T 587, k. 1, p.
62bl2: Saddharmapundankasutra, p. 3, 1. 10. These are the 16 bodhisattvas of the exoteric tradition (Hicn kiao). distinct
from the 16 bodhisattvas of the esoteric tradition (Mi kiao).
13. Che cheng (Suvikrantavikramin)
14. Tch'angk'in (Nityodyukta)
15. Pou cho tsing tsin (Aniksiptadhura)
16. Je tsang (Suryagarbha)
17. Pou k'iueyi (Anupamacintin)
18. Kouan cheyin (Avalokitesvara)
19. Wen chou che li or Miao to (Manjusri)
20. Tchepaoyin (Ratnamudrahasta)
21. Tch'angkiu cheou (Nityotksiptahasta)
22 Mi Id or Ts'eu che (Maitreya)
They were at the head of countless thousands of kotinayuta of bodhisattva-mahasattvas who were all still
awaiting succession {eh pra ibaddhdy^ and will still accede to Buddhahood (bhiiyastvena
kunulrcihluitci).^!
[Ilia] Sastra: All these bodhisattvas accompanying the Buddha were at Rajagrha on the
Grdhrakutaparvala .
Question. - These bodhisattvas are very numerous; why does the surra give the names of only twenty -two?
Answer. - If it were to cite the countless kotinayuta of bodhisattvas by name, there would be no end to it;
the person who wants to cite them all would not have enough letters (aksara) at their disposal.
Moreover, there are two categories among these bodhisattvas: the lay (grhastha) and the monastic
(pravrajita):
1) These are the lay bodhisattvas, the first 16 on the list, beginning with Bhadrapala.
- Bhadrapala, of the vaisya caste, is an old man from Wang cho (Rajagrha).""
- Ratnakara, a young prince- ( kumdra ). lives in VaisalT.
- Subhagupta, a merchant's son (sresthiputra), lives in Tchan no (C'ampa).
- Sarthavaha, of the vaisya caste, lives in Chop'o t'i (Sravastl).
- Naradatta, of the brahmin caste, lives in. Mi t'i lo (Mithila).
"5" The Chinese ｅxpression pou tch'ou or 'still awaiting succession' imperfectly renders the nskril k pi badd)
(Tibetan, sk\e In tin , h ■ I mi in 'separated from Buddhahood by only one rebirth'.
"51 The Chinese ｅxpression chao tsouen wei rchb 'who will accede to the noble place' imperfectly renders the Sanskrit
•liiiyu i iraiihuta (Tibetan plitn i < / r t which mean ilwa prince' [i.e., associated with royal
power]. This ｅxpression will occur again at k. 10, p. 128a 1 6 >,•■ here it again is translated as hliiiya.stvciia kumarabhutva.
652 See Bhadrapalasutra, T 416, k. 1, p. 872a-b.
- Varunadatta is an upasaka bodhisattva.
2) There are the monastic (pravrajita) bodhisattvas, Maitreya, Manjusri, etc.
3) The bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, etc., all come from a buddha-fieki (buddhak$etra) in a foreign region
(clesantara).
By citing a few lay people (grhasta), the sutra includes all the lay bodhisattvas; it is the same for the
monastic bodhisattvas and the foreign (desantarin) bodhisattvas.
Question. - What are the special (visesa) qualities of the bodhisattva Bhadrapala who is at the top of the
list? - If the greatest ones were to be put first, you would have to cite first of all the bodhisattvas Pien ki
(Vairocana), Kouan che yin (Avalokitesvara), To ta che (Mahasthamaprapta), etc. If the least were to be
placed on top, you would have to cite first the bodhisattvas of fleshly body (mdmsakdyabodhisattva) and
those who were about to produce the mind of enlightenment {prathamacittottpddikabodhisattva) for the
first time.
Answer. - If the bodhisattva Bhadrapala is placed first, it is not because he is the greatest or the least, but
because he is an old man from Rajagrha, the greatest of the lay bodhisattvas {avaddtavasanabodhisattva),
and because the Buddha went specifically to Rajagrha to preach the Prajnaparamita.
Furthermore, the bodhisattva Bhadrapala has immense qualities (guna) of every kind and, in the Pan
tcheou sun mei (Pratyutpannasamadhi)"" the Buddha praised his qualities.
Question. - If the bodhisattva Maitreya can be said to be 'awaiting succession' (ekajatipratibaddha),®^
why are the other bodhisattvas also called 'waiting for succession to Buddhahood'?
Answer. - Divided up among the [various] buddha-fields (buddhaksetra) of the ten directions, these
bodhisattvas are all awaiting succession (ekajatipratibaddha).
*"-> This is the Bhadrapalasutra known by a Tibetan translation entitled Da Itar hyi sans rgyas mnon sum du b€u <
tin ih I, > I'ratyutpani ibuddha immukha i Ihila imadhi Ido li oma-Feer, p. 250; OKC, no. 281, p. 299) and
four Chinese translations due respectively to Jhanagiipta (1 416). Tchc Ich'an (T 417 and T 418) and an anonymous
translator (T 419).
"^ 4 In the Lesser Vehicle, it is claimed that the bodhisattva Maitreya, presently in Tusita heaven, will immediately
succeed Buddha Sakyamuni in the course of a kalpa when the human lifespan will be 80.000 years (cf Di'gha, III, p. 75;
1 ch'ang a han, T 1, k. 6, p. 41c; Tchong a han, T 46, k. 13, p. 511a). Maitreya therefore merits the adjective pan tch'ou
'awaiting succession'. But how would these innumerable oilier bodhisattvas also be awaiting succession?
The objection does not stop the Mahayana scholars who claim diat at the same time there can be several Buddhas,
provided that they are in different trichiliocosms.
CHAPTER XIV: EMISSION OF RAYS
ACT I
Sutra: Then, having himself arranged the lion-seat, the Bhagavat sat down cross-legged, " holding his
body upright and fixing his attention, he entered into the samadhi called King of Samadhis, in which all the
concentrations are included (Atha khalu bhagavdn svayam eva simluisanam prajnapya nyasRlut
paryahkam bad vd rj n< pranidlulydl khfi i i lp\ ntitlhirtijan ldma samadhim
samtlpatlyate snui yatra sarvasamddhayo 'ntargatah).
Sastra: Question. - The Buddha has a servant (upasthayaka) and numerous bodhisattvas; why does he
arrange the lion-seat (simhasand) himself?
Answer. - This seat was created (nirmitd) by the Buddha himself in accordance with the great assembly;
this is why Ananda [the Buddha's servant] could not arrange it. Besides, it is the Buddha's mind (citta) that
creates this seat; this is why it is said that he arranges it himself.
Question. - What is this simhasanal Did the Buddha create a lion? Is a real lion [111b] present, or did he
make a lion out of gold, silver, wood or stone? Besides, since the lion is not a nice animal, the Buddha does
not need it and, since there is no need for it, the lion should not be there.
Answer. - The lion in question is not a real lion but, since the Buddha is a lion among men {purusasimha),
the seat where he sits down, whether it be on a bed (dsana) or on the ground (bhumi), is called the 'lion's
seat'. In the same way, even today the seat where the king is enthroned is called a lion's seat, the chief who
commands warriors is called a lion-man (purusasimha) and people call the king of the land purusasimha.
Just as a lion among animals is strong, fearless and can conquer all (abhibhavati), so the Buddha triumphs
over all ninety-six heretical systems"^" and is called purusasimha.
Question. - Sitting postures are numerous; why does the Buddha take just the cross-legged posture
(paryaikabanclha)'?
*"-> The Buddha should be visualized as seated in padmdsana, 'a position in which the legs are tightly folded with the
soles of the feet turned upwards'. This lotus posture had always been utilized by the yogins of India and is still used by
the sadhus (Foucher, Art Greco-bouddhique, II. p. 325). Also, as the Buddha is in samadhi. he exhibits the meditation
mudrd in which the two hands are superimposed one on the other in the lap. Buddhist sculptures often show the Buddha
in this posture.
Although according to the Mpps the lion-scat should be understood in a symbolic sense as the seat of the lion-man
// l, Ih uddha i hi 1111 i [i iii J d on a simluisana. 'a throne supported by lions'. Among other
examples, sec: a Buddha from Gandhara, in A. von L< Coq on Land u. Leu n t t'u Leipzig, I pi. -M
bodhisattva-buddha at Mathura in Foucher, Art Greco-houddhique, II, p. 670, fig. 550; Vogcl. Sculpture de Matliwd. pi.
XXVIa. As Le Coq notes, o.c. p. 166-167, the lion-seat is still used among the Muslim Persians. For further details, see J.
il ii ' i souverai Inde d i ' I. 1937. p. 88-101
" 5 " Made up of the systems of the six heretical teachers plus the fifteen schools founded by each of them. Bukkyo
daijiten, p. 296a-b.
Answer. - 7) Among sitting postures, the cross-legged position is the calmest (ksema) and the least tiring;
this is the posture of those in dhydna for, by holding the hands and feet in this way, the mind does not
wander.
2) Furthermore, among the four bodily positions (kdyerydpatha), it is the most calming {ksema): it is the
posture of ecstasy, the usual position for finding the Path (mdrgaldbha). When king Mara sees it, he is sad
and frightened. Sitting in this way is customary for the monastic (pravrajita): he actually sits cross-legged
under a tree in the forest; the crowds who see him feel joyful and know that this monastic will certainly
attain the path. Some stanzas say:
When one sits cross-legged
The body is at peace, one enters into samadhi.
Powerful people regard you with respect
Like the sun that lights up the continent.
Slothfulness and mental disturbances are driven away,
The body is light and does not know fatigue.
The intellect also is alert;
This peaceful posture is like the coiling up of a snake.
If merely a painting of crossed legs
Causes king Mara to feel sad and afraid,
How much more so if it is a person entered onto the Path
Sitting peacefully and motionlessly.
This is why one sits with crossed legs.
3) Furthermore, the Buddha told his disciples that they should sit this way."5 7 There are some heretics
who search for the path by always standing on one foot, or by always remaining standing, or by placing
their feet on their shoulders; such tortures plunge the mind into a sea of bewilderment; these postures are
not calming. " 8 This is why the Buddha recommends that his disciples sit with crossed legs holding the
body upright (rjiikdyam praniclhaya).
Why? When one keeps the body straight, it is easy to control the mind; in those whose body is straight, the
mind is not idle. With right mind, the ascetic fixes his attention (abhimukhim smrtim upasthdpayati); when
the mind wanders, he seizes it and brings it back. In order to enter into samadhi, he keeps his mind free of
any distraction. It is by fixing his attention thus that [the Buddha] entered into the Samadhirajasamadhi.
"-"'Forcxani I mill i ilh n il ( I piiiiin I. p. 56) / /
I mil' dtiin iij liapch
" 5 ° These postures have been condemned by the Buddha in DIgha, I, p. 167.
What is the Samadhirajasamadhi? This samadhi is foremost among all the samadhis; [111c] it takes
innumerable samadhis at will as object (alambate). Just as the king (rdjan) is foremost of all men, just as
the cakravartin king is foremost among kings, just as the Buddha is foremost among all the beings of earth
and heaven, so this samadhi is foremost of all samadhis.
Question. - By virtue of the power of the Buddha, all the samadhis [practiced by him] are necessarily
foremost. Why do you call only the Samadhiraja foremost?
Answer. - Although all the samadhis practiced by the Buddha are necessarily foremost by virtue of his
miraculous power (rddhibala), nevertheless there are differences (visesa) among them; they do not all have
the same value.
Question. - In what absorption (samapatti) is the Samadhirajasamadhi contained (samgrhita), and what is
its nature (laksunu)'!
Abswer. - a) Some claim that the Samadhirajasamadhi has mastery (vasita, aisvarya) as its nature, that it is
contained in the five good elements (pancakusalaskandha)®*" and that it resides in the fourth dhyana
(caturtha dhyana). Why?
It is in the fourth dhyana that all the Buddhas, travelling on the path of seeing the truths
(satyadarsanamdrga), attain the fruit of A na han (anagamin), and that they attain Buddhahood in eighteen
mind-moments.""^ It is in the fourth dhyana that the Buddhas abandon life and it is in the fourth dhyana
that they enter into nirvana-without-residue (nirupadhisesanirvdna).^ The eight stages
(bhavasthdna),^- the [eight] vimoksas and the [eight] abhibhvayatanas""-' are contained in the fourth
" 5 "Theh\i_ i 1 iiillii ii / / ml <]> h III i myutta, 1
p. 99-100; Kosa, I, p. 48).
660 jjjg Buddha attained bodhi in dependence on the fourth dhyana: this detail is noted by all the stories of the
enlightenment; see, among other sources, Majjhima, I, p. 247; Mahavastu, II, p. 283, 1. 12; Lalitavistara, p. 344, 1. 3. - The
P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 153, p. 780a-b; Kosa, II, p. 206, VI, p. 177, explain how the Bodhisattva comes to bodhi in one
( ion ( ' . mh) in dependence on the fourth dhyana. This session consists of 34 mind-moments:
1 1 ixtccn momen if the path ol hi / i >i i > I landin if the truths (ahln uiya) make of th
future Buddha an anagamin detached from all existence except for the bhavagra. these sixteen moments have been
discussed above.
/;,! The eighteen moments (nine prahanas or 'abandonments', nine vimuktis or 'deliverances') of the path of meditation
i ' I or repeated study ( In I of the truths destroy the pa ms (klcsa) relating to bhavagra in the futun
Buddha and assure him the quality of samyaksambuddha.
661 This detail is noted in the stories of the Parinirvana: Catutthajjl i i hajjliiiiui viitthalii
nu antt I ' ' hnihhayi Dlgha, II, p. 156; Samyutta, I, p. 158; Chinese translations of the
Mahaparinirvanasutra: T 1, k. 4, p. 26c; T 6, k. 2, p. 188c; T 7, k. 2, p. 205a.
"62 There are three stages for each of the first three dhyanas, and eight stages for the fourth dhyana: anabhraka,
punyaprasava, brhatphala and the live suddhavasikas - in all, seven places for rupadhatu. This is the opinion of the
i ilpndi il i ii ! cat Wi Icrn i i.i irvasti ulin iv in ( i mdh u > li I i. Ill, p. 2-3 as a note, whcie other
opinions are mentioned.
dhyana. The krtsnayatanas are abundant in the fourth dhyana. The fourth dhyana is free of disturbances
(aninjya); it is not an obstacle (avrnoti) to the dharmas of absorption. [On the contrary], in the desire realm
{kamadhatu), desire (kama) counteracts the mind of absorption (samdpatticitta); in the first dhyana,
investigation (vitarka) and analysis iyicard) stir up the mind; in the second dhyana, it is great joy (priti)
that moves it; in the third dhyana, it is great pleasure (sukha) that moves it. But in the fourth dhyana, there
is no disturbance. *"
Moreover, the first dhyana is burned up by fire (tejas), the second is flooded by water (dpas), the third is
blown away by wind (ydyii), but the fourth is free of these three torments (badhand),-' there is no
inbreath or outbreath (asvasa, prasvasa);""® it is pure in its equanimity and its memory
(upeksasmrtiparisuddha)®®' This is why the Samadhirajasamadhi should be in the fourth dhyana in the
same way that a precious object has its place in a treasury.
b) Others say: Who can know the nature (laksand) of a samadhi of the Buddha? All the dharmas of the
Buddha have a unique nature (ekalaksana), without mark (animitta), immense (aprameya), incalculable
(asamkhyeya), inconceivable (acintya). If the other samadhis [of the Buddha] are immense, incalculable
and inconceivable, what then could be said of the Samadhirajasamadhi? The Buddha is the only one who
knows it. If the basis of his miraculous power (rddhipada) and his morality (sila) is inconceivable, what
then could be said of the Samadhirajasamadhi?
Moreover, all the samadhis are collected (antargata) in the Samadhirajasamadhi; this is why it is called
'king of samadhis'. In the same way, all the rivers and all the streams of JambudvTpa empty into the great
ocean and all the people depend on their king.
Question. - The Buddha is omniscient (sarvajna) and knows everything. [112a] Why does he enter into the
Samadhirajasamadhi and what will he know subsequently (prstham)!
Answer. - 1) He wishes to show that his wisdom (prajna) is the result of causes and conditions
(hetupratyayasunuitpcinna) and astound the six heretic teachers who claim: "Wisdom is always present in
us; we always know."""° This is why it is said that the Buddha knows because he has entered into the
Samadhirajasamadhi and, if he did not enter it, he would not know.
6°3 jjjg relationships between the dhydnas on the one hand and the i in i >i Ih Ih r hand in
very complicated: see Kosa, VIII, p. 204 seq.
664 See Majjhima, I, p. 454; Tchong a han, T 26, k. 50, p. 743b; Kosa, IV, p. 107; VII, p. 161; Kosavyakhya, p. 677:
pratliaiuaiu dhyanam vitarkavicarahliyain kampyate, dvitiyam prityci, trtiyam sukhena; naivam ebhis catmtliam
kampyate.
665 Kosa, III, p. 215
""" In kamadhatu and the first three dhyanas. there is inbreath and outbreath (aiiapana) (Kosa, VI, p. 153), but in the
fourth dliyan \U e t o breath alon ith th othci ix apal ila arc eliminated (1 isa VIII, p. 161).
""' Upeksaparisuddhi is one of the four members of the fourth dhyana (Kosa, VIII, p. 148).
°"° See, for example, the pretentions to omniscience of Purana Kassapa, in Ahguttara, IV, p. 428: Purano Kassapo
u pat Wc have all id\ seen the conceited attitude ol "• ika
Niganthfputta.
Question. - If that were so, the power of the Buddha would be very reduced!
Answer. - No, because he never has any trouble entering into Samadhirajasamadhi, and it takes him but a
moment to do so. It is not the same for the sravakas, the pratyekabuddhas and the lesser bodhisattvas"""
who try in every way (updya) to enter samadhi.
2) Moreover, when he has entered Samadhirajasamadhi, the Buddha, with his six super-knowledges
(abhijna), penetrates the ten directions without obstacle or limit.
3) Moreover, when he has entered Samadhirajasamadhi, he manifests his great miraculous power
(rddhibala) by means of all kinds of metamorphoses (nirmdna). If he manifested his great miraculous
power without entering into Samadhirajasamadhi, some people might think that the Buddha was using the
powers of magic (mayabald) or of spoils (mantrabala), or that he is a very powerful naga, or that he is a
god and not a human. Why? When a single body emits countless bodies and when all sorts of rays (rasmi)
are created (nirmita), we might [easily] think that this is not the doing of a human. It is to prevent such an
error that the Buddha enters into Samadhirajasamadhi.
4) Moreover, if the Buddha entered some samadhi other [than the Samadhiraja], the devas, sravakas and
pratyekabuddhas would be able to probe it: they would say that the miraculous power of the Buddha is
great but nevertheless knowable, and their veneration (gurukdra) would be small. It is because the Buddha
enters into Samadhirajasamadhi that no arya nor even a tenth-bhtimi (dasabhumi) bodhisattva is capable of
sounding it out. [Actually, when the Buddha is deep in this Samadhiraja], no one knows what the support
(dsraya) or what the object (dlambana) of the Buddha's mind is. This is why the Buddha enters into the
Samadhiraj asamadhi.
5) Moreover, there are occasions (samaya) when the Buddha emits great rays (rasmi) and manifests his
great miraculous power (rddhibala): when he attains bodhi, when he turns the wheel of Dharma
(dharmacakra), when a great assembly of devas and aryas gathers, when he astounds the heretics
(tirthika).® He emits great rays on all these occasions. Indeed, it is in order to manifest his superiority
(visesa) that he emits great rays, so that all the beings of the ten directions, human and divine, so that all
the arhats, pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas might know him by sight. This is why he enters into the
Samadhiraj asamadhi.
6) Finally, rays (rasmi) and miraculous power (rddhibala) may be lesser (avara), medium (madhya) or
superior (agra): i) spells (mantra) and magic (maya) can produce luminous effects (rasminirmdna) that
are lesser; ii) devas, nagas and asuras, by virtue of retribution (vipaka) for their actions, have rays and
""" I.e., the bodhisattvas before their entry into the bhumis.
670 fjjg Lalitavistara never fails to mention the lights rays emitted by the Bodhisattva-Buddha on the great o
when he leaves Tusita heaven (p. 51), when he is born (p. 80), when he goes to the bodhimanda (p. 278-279), when he
gels reads to teach the Dharma at Benares (p. 420). Corresponding passages in f'oucaux' translation, p. 51. 80. 240. 341.
- The Pali scriptures arc much more restrained on this subject.
As for the blazing of the Buddha "When a great assembly of devas or aryas gathers and when he astounds the heretics", it
is represented frequently on the has reliefs, even w hen the texts find it unnecessary to mention it: see Foucher, Art Greco-
bouddhique, I, fig. 240 (India's \ isit): fig. 261 (dispute with the naked heretics).
miraculous power that are medium; Hi) the one who has entered into samadhi by actual qualities (guna) and
mental power (cittabala), is able to emit great rays and manifest great miraculous power that are superior.
This is why the Buddha enters into the Samadhirajasamadhi.
Question. - All the samadhis have their own nature (svalaksana); how can they all be included in this
[ Samadhiraj asamadhi] ?
Answer. - 1) When one obtains the Samadhirajasamadhi, one obtains all the samadhis [by that very fact].
[112b] This is why 'they enter into it' (tardntargata). By the power of the Samadhiraja, all the samadhis
become immense (aprameya), incalculable (asamkhyeya) and inconceivable (acintya). This is why it is
said that they are contained in it.
2) Furthermore, by entering into the Samadhirajasamadhi, one enters into all the other samadhis if one
wishes.
3) Furthermore, when one has entered into the Samadhirajasamadhi, one can contemplate the nature of all
the samadhis in the way one contemplates everything below from the top of a mountain.
4) Finally, when the Buddha is in Samadhirajasamadhi, he is able to contemplate all the universes
(lokadhdtu) of the ten directions and also all beings (sattva). This is why he enters into the
Samadhiraj asamadhi.
Sutra: Then, having tranquilly come out of this samadhi and having contemplated the entire universe with
his divine eye, the Bhagavat smiled with his whole body (Atha khalu bhdgavdn smrtimdn samprajdnams
tasmai samtlclher vyuttlulya divyena caksusa sarvalokcullidtiim vyavalokya arvakayat smitam akarot)
Sdstra: Question. - Having entered into the Samadhirajasamadhi, why does the Buddha leave it
immediately and contemplate the universe?
Answer. - The Buddha enters Samadhirajasamadhi; he opens and examines the precious basket
(ratnapitaka) of all the buddhadharmas. In this samadhi, he contemplates and says to himself: "The basket
of my Dharma (clluiiinapitaka) is immense (aprameya), incalculable (asamkhyeya) and inconceivable
(acintya)." Immediately afterwards, he comes out of samadhi and contemplates beings (sattva) with his
divine eye (divyacaksus). He knows the misery of beings, he knows that the basket of the Dharma which
comes from causes and conditions (hetuprayayasamutpanna) am also be attained by all beings but that the
latter, plunged in the shadows of error (mohdndhakara), do not ask for it and do not seek it. This is why he
smiles with his whole body (sarvakdydt smitam karoti).
Question. - The Buddha possesses the buddha-eye (buddhacaksus). the wisdom-eye (prajndcaksus) and the
Dharma-eye (dharmacaksus);®'! they are better than the divine eye (divyacaksus). Why does he use the
divine eye to contemplate the universe?
Answer. - Because the visual range of the fleshly eye (mamsacaksus) is not great enough. The wisdom-eye
(prajndcaksus) knows the true nature (satyalaksana) of the dharmas; the Dharma-eye (dharmacaksus) sees
a given person and discovers by what skillful means (upadya) and by what teaching (dharma) that person
will fnd the Path; the buddha-eye (buddhacaksus) is the direct insight (pratyaksavagama) into all dharmas.
Here it is the divine eye that considers the universe (lokadhdtu) and beings (sattva) without encountering
any obstacles (ciiuivcinincim). It is not the same for the other eyes. The wisdom-eye, the Dharma-eye and
the buddha-eye, although superior [to the divine eye] are not meant to see beings. If one wishes to see
beings, there are only two eyes one can use, the fleshly eye (mamsacaksus) and the divine eye
(divyacaksus) but since the fleshly eye's range is insufficient and encounters obstacles, the Buddha uses the
divine eye.
Question. - But the divine eye occurs in the Buddhas; why is it called divine eye [and not buddha-eye]?
Answer. - 7) Because it often occurs among the gods (deva). The range of the divine eye is not obstructed
by mountains (parvata), walls (kudya) or forests (vana). The zealous person (viryavat), disciplined
(silavat) and concentrated (dhyayiri), obtains it by the power of practice (abhisamskarabala); it is not an
inborn gift (upapattija). This is why it is called divyacakasus .
2) Furthermore, people are very respectful towards the gods and take them as teachers; and as the Buddha
is in harmony with human conceptions, he calls this eye divyacaksus.
3) Finally, there are three types of gods (deva): gods by metaphor (sammatideva), gods by birth
(upapattideva), and pure gods (visuddhideva). The sammatideva are [112 c] kings (rdjan) and princes
(kumdra). The upapattideva are gods like Che (Indra), Fan (Brahma), etc. The visuddhideva are the
Buddhas, pratyekabuddhas and arhats. The Buddha is the most venerable of the visuddhidevas; this is why
it is not wrong to speak of the divyacaksus [concerning him here].
[The sutra says]: "With his divine eye he contemplates the entire universe." All the beings of this universe
always seek happiness (sukha); their minds become attached (abhinivisate) to the atman, but in reality there
"' 1 Here the Mpps attributi s Eh 1 caksus or visual powers to the Buddha. It will refer to them again later at k. 33, p. 305.
These are: 1) the fleshly eye (mamsacaksus), 2) the divine eye (divyacaksus), 3) the wisdom-eye (prajndcaksus), 4) the
Dharma-eye (dliannacaksus) and (lie buddha-eye {buddhacaksus). The same list occurs in Mahavastu, I, p. 158, and
Dharmasamgraha, chap. LXVI. Lalitavistara, p. 3, 1. 5; p. 413, 1. 2, describes the Buddli i / c uhsamanvagata.
Tin ci ill id\ in niu'iv d in i hi i in'. ,in ,1 criplui cithci cparatcly (see Rhys Davids-Stede, s.v. cakklni)
or as a group. A list of the first three eyes is in Itivuttaka, p. 52, Kathavatthu, p. 251; a full list of the five eyes in
Cullaniddcsa, p. 235 and Atthasalini, p. 306, but the fourth is designated by the ｅxpression saiuitacakkim instead of
dhammacakkhu.
The five eyes are also enumerated in a Sogdian texl from the Pelliot mission, cd. by E. Bcnvcniste in TSP, no. 10, p. 126-
127.
is no atman. Beings always are afraid of suffering (duhkha) but they always suffer: they are like blind
people (andha) who lose their way and fall into the ditch while seeking the right path.
After all these considerations, the Buddha "smiles with his whole body".
Question. - one smiles with one's mouth (mukha) and sometimes with the eyes (aksi). Why does the sutra
say that the Buddha smiles with his whole body (sarvakayat)?
Answer. - The Buddha who has obtained mastery (aisvarya, vasita) over the universe can make his whole
body like the mouth or the eyes. Besides, we call 'smiling' the dilatation of all the pores of the skin
{sarvaromakupavivartana): when we smile with pleasure, all the pores dilate.
Question. - Why does the Buddha who is always so serious {guru) smile like this?
Answer. - When the great earth (mahdprthivi) trembles (kampate), it is not without a reason or for a trivial
reason; it is the same for the Buddha: he does not smile without rhyme or reason. He smiles with his whole
body for a grave reason. What is this grave reason?
7) The Buddha is about to preach the Prajnaparamita and innumerable beings (asamkhyeyasattva) will
continue the Buddha's lineage (buddhagotra): that is the grave reason.
2) Furthemore, the Buddha said: "From lifetime to lifetime, I was once a tiny insect (krmi), a wretched
thing, but little by little I accumulated the roots of good (kusalamula) and 1 finally attained great wisdom
(mahaprajna). Today I am a Buddha: my miraculous power (rddhibala) is immense (apramdna). All these
beings could themselves do as I have done. Why are their efforts in vain and why do they fall into the
lower destinies?" That is why the Buddha smiles.
3) Furthermore, small cause (hetu), large effects (phala); small condition (pratyayd), great results (vipaka)]
If those who seek Buddhahood have only to pronounce a single stanza (gatha) and burn only a single pinch
of incence (gandha) to be assured of becoming Buddha, what will not be the success of those who, from
having heard (srutd) that dharmas are neither born {anutpannd) nor destroyed (aniruddha), will perform
the actions that lead [to Buddhahood]? That is why the Buddha smiles.
4) Furthermore, the Prajnaparamita is essentially pure (visuddlui): like space (dkdsa), it can be neither
given nor received. The Buddha, who wants to convert all beings, resorts to various skillful means (updya),
such as rays (rasmi) and miraculous qualities (rddhiprabhava), in order to soften their minds and cause
them to have faith in the Prajnaparamita. That is why he smiles and emits rays.
Finally, a smile has all kinds of causes (hetupratyaya): one smiles out of joy (muditd) or anger (dvesa) or
timidity; one smiles at the sight of strange or ridiculous things; one smiles in the face of strange customs or
extraordinary [113a] difficulties. Here it is a matter of an absolutely extraordinary difficulty. Dharmas are
non-arisen {anutpannd), non-ceasing (aniruddha), absolutely empty (sunya), unpronounceable (anaksara),
unnameable (andiuaka), unspeakable (aiuihhilapya), inexpressible (anirvacya); however, they must be
given a name (naman) and letters (aksara) must be applied to them when one speaks of them to others in
order to lead them to deliverance (vimoksa): this is an enormous difficulty. Let us suppose that there is a
fireplace one hundred yojanas in length and that a man carrying dry grass (suskatrna) enters this fireplace
and crosses it without burning a single blade; that would be an exploit. In the same way, it is very difficult
for the Buddha to take these dried grasses that are the 80,000 sayings of the Dharma
(dharmanamasamketdy 3 '^- and to enter with them into the true nature of the dharmas
(dharmasatyalaksana) without letting them be burned by the fire of attachment {sangatejas) and to pass
through this fire safely without stopping. That is why the Buddha smiles and it is a result of these
difficulties of every kind that the Buddha smiles with his whole body.
Sutra: Wheels with a thousand spokes [imprinted on] the soles of his feet shoot out six hundred
prabhedakoti of rays ( Tasytldluistat pcldatalayoh saluisraixlhhytlm satrasmipi ahhedakotisatani nisceruh)
Sastra: Question. - Why does he first emit light from his body?
Answer. - We have already answered this question by talking about the causes for the smile, but we will
repeat it here.
1) By seeing the immense body of the Buddha emit great rays, some people are filled with pure faith
(sraddlidvihiddlii) and great veneration (satkara): they know that he is not an ordinary man.
2) Moreover, the Buddha wishes to manifest his wisdom. By means of the miracle of his rays, he first emits
a bodily light and beings know that if his bodily light appears, the rays of his wisdom (prajhdrasmi) will
[soon] be emitted.
3) Finally, all beings are attached (sakta) to sensory pleasure (kdmasukha) and the first of the five sensory
objects is form (rupa). Seeing the marvelous light of the Buddha, their mind becomes attached to it; they
renounce their earlier pleasures; their mind becomes detached little by little from sensory objects and then
wisdom can be preached to them.
Question. - Yet others, gods or men, are able to emit rays; how are they different from the Buddha who
emits rays?
Answer. - The rays that gods and men are able to emit are limited. The sun and the moon
(suryacandramas) illuminate only the four continents (cdturdvTpaka); but the rays emitted by the Buddha
fill a trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu and, leaving this trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, they extend as far
as the nadir {adhastad dis). The rays emitted by men make only men rejoice, but the rays emitted by the
Buddha make all beings hear the Dharma and find salvation. That is the difference.
Question. - The head is the noblest part of the body; why does the Buddha first emit rays from the soles of
his feet (padataldfl
Answer. - The body owes its stability (pratisthdna) to the feet. Moreover, if the head is noble in the body,
the feet are lowly and, since the Buddha does not esteem his own rays and does not consider them very
precious, he emits them from the lowly place. Finally, the nagas, mahoragas and asuras emit rays from their
mouths and poison whatever is in front of them. If the Buddha emitted his rays from his mouth, beings
672 This is a matter of the 80,000 or 84,000 dharmaskandhas.
would be frightened and fear to be exposed to them. This is why the Buddha emits rays from the soles of
his feet.
Question. - The six hundred prabhedakoti of rays that escape from the soles of his feet up to and including
those that come from his cranial protuberance [113b] (usnisa) can be counted. If they cannot fill the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, how could they then fill the ten directions?
Answer. - The rays from the body [of the Buddha] are a source of light (alokamula) and the secondary
currents coming from this source are innumerable (apramand) and incalculable (asamkhyeya). Just as the
K'ie lo k'ien lo insect (?), the body of which is minuscule (paramanu), grows in contact with the wind to
the point of being able to devour everything, so the Buddha's rays, on contact with beings to be converted
(vineyasattva), grow to be infinite.
Sutra: In the same way, beams of six hundred prabhedakoti of rays are emitted (nisceruh) from the ten toes
of his feet (padahguli), from his two ankles (gulpha), from his two thighs (jangha), from his two knees
(janumandala) from his two hips (kati), from his spine (prstha), from his belly (udara), from his sides,
from his navel (ndblii), from the 'srlvatsa' mark on his chest (hridayasrivatsd), from his shoulders
(amsa)V'J , from his arms (bahu), from his hands (hasta), from his ten fingers (anguli), from his neck
(griva), from his mouth (mukha), from his forty teeth (danta), from his two nostrils (ghrana), from his two
eyes (caksus), from his two ears (srotra), from his urna and from his usnisaP'^
Sastra. - If the rays that shoot out from the soles of his feet can illuminate the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu and the universes of the ten directions, why do the other parts of his body
also shoot out six hundred prabhedakoti of rays?
Answer. - I have said above that the rays from the soles of his feet light up the direction of the nadir
(adhastad dis), but do not fill the other directions; this is why the Buddha also emits rays from [the other]
parts of his body. Some say that the feet, the support (pratisthana) of the entire body, are the most
important and, for this reason, the Buddha emits six hundred prabhedakoti of rays from the soles of his
feet. By so doing, he shows beings that, of his thirty-two marks {dvdtrimsallaksana), the foremost consists
of having his feet well-planted (supratisthitapadatala), but that the other parts of his body have also a
miraculous power (rddhibala).
Question. - on which samadhi, on which abhijna and on which dhyana does the Buddha depend (asrita) to
emit his rays?
' Sec, for example, the statue found near Kabul which is in the Calcutta museum showing the Buddha surrounded by
imes coming from his shoulders (Foucher, Art Greco-bouddhique, II, fig. 463, p. 331 and 369, note).
~' Cf. Pancavimsati, p. 6, and Satasahasrika, p. 7-8.
Answer. - Among all the samadhis, he depends on the Samadhirajasamadhi; among the six abhijnds, he
depends on the abhijnd of miraculous power (rddhy abhijnd); among the four dhydnas, he depends on the
fourth clhyana. The fire of the fourth dhydna surpasses ordinary fire, and all who enter into it emit rays.
Moreover, when he was born, when he attained bodhi and when he set in motion the wheel of Dharma
(dharmacakra), the Buddha emitted immense rays that filled the ten directions. Why then would he not
emit rays when he preaches the Mahaprajnaparamita?
The jewels of a cakravartin king usually have a brilliance that illuminates the king and his army on all four
sides to a distance of one yojana. 'Ht is the same for the Buddha: if he did not enter into samadhi, he
would emit only his usual light (prakrtiprabhd).®'™ What is that? It is the light of the Three Jewels: the
Buddha, the Dharma and the Samgha.
Sutra: From these rays (rasmi) came a great light (avabhdsa) that illuminated (parisphotati) the
trisahasamahasashralokadhatu. From the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, it went to illuminate universes in
the east (purvasydm disi) as numerous as the sands of the Ganges {gangdnudivdlukopamd lokadhdtavah).
And it was the same in the south (daksinasyam disi), in the west ( • , ) and in the n rth
(uttarasyam disi), in the four intermediate directions (yidiksu), at the zenith (upuristhucl disi) and at the
nadir (adhastdd disi)P'' And all the beings touched by this light were settled into supreme perfect
"'^ Cf. Milinda, p. 118 cai r timi u . n vojanam obhaseti.
°'° Below, k. 8, p. 114c, the Buddha will exhibil this usual light (prakrtiprabha) which is one arm-span in width and
surpasses the light of a thousand suns. This will be Act III.
"'' Here it may be useful to give the Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan and Chinese vocabularies for the ten directions. See the
following sources: Pancavimsati, ed. N. Dutt, p. 6; Chinese translations: T 221, p. 1M2-15; T 222, p. 147b25-26; T 223,
p. 217b21; Satasasrika, p. 9 Snkh U'vyiil I. I S diili ma] indanl | l \l m utpatti, no. 8326-8337;
Samyutta, III, p. 124.
Ill' t » ii i ndircclioi i ' pin < ) ubdi ided in Ihc following way:
a) The four directions proper:
Hast (purvti. puriina or puratthima, sar, tong),
Sou\h(daksina, dakkhimi, llw, nan).
West (pascimd, pacchimd, nub, si).
North (uttara, uttara, byan, pel).
i Ih i i ii i i li i Ii ' i / (i ; /( 120 and 8) or yu (170 and 9):
North-east (uttarapitn i uttarapariina n< uri-sar, tong-pei).
i "ill est l i aksim < uidukkhinu, s, ho, i ong nun).
South-east (dak i < ho nub si-nan).
lorlh 'i iinotta I ra nub-byan, si-pei)
c) The two directions above and below (in Pali, patidisa in Digha, II!, p. I 76): nadir (adliah, adhastat or heshlthiina, adho
or hetthima, hog, hid).
Zenith (urdhvam, uparis tat or uparistlia, uddhaiu oi upavima, stch, cluing).
enlightenment (ye ca suttvas tcna nuiluita ixismyavcihhasena splnita avahhasiias lc sarve niyata abhuvan
anutturiiyiim sumyaksambodhau).
[113 c] Question. - The nature of fire (tejas) is flame which rises upward (urdhvajvala), that of water
(dpas) is moisture which tends to go downward (adhahsnigdhata), that of wind (vdyu) is sinuous
movement (tiryaggamana). Therefore the vapor ignited by the rays [of the Buddha] will necessarily go
upwards. Why does the sutra say that that it illuminates everywhere (parisphotati) the
trisahasramahasasralokadhatu and the universes of the ten directions?
Answer. - The rays are twofold: vapor of fire and vapor of water; such are the vapor of fire of the sun-stone
(suryakanta ) and the vapor of water of the moon-stone (candrakantd)? ' °
Although the nature of fire (tejolaksana) is to blaze upward, the fire in the human body rises, descends and
penetrates everywhere. It is the same for the solar fire and it is in this way that the waters of the earth dry
up in the summer months. Thus we know that fire does not always rise upward.
Furthermore, by the power of the Buddha, these rays penetrate the ten directions like an arrow (isu) shot by
a bow (dhanus) goes straight to the target.
Question. - Why do these rays first light up the east and only after that the south, the west and the north?
Answer. - Since the sun rises in the east, the east is first; the Buddha, who is in harmony with people's
ideas (sattvacittdnuvartandt), lights up the east first. Furthermore, we will always come up with the same
difficulty: if he first illuminated the south, we would wonder why he did not first illuminate the east, the
west and the north; if he illuminated first the west or the north, the difficulty would be the same.
Question. - When do the rays disappear?
Answer. - The Buddha uses his miraculous power (rddhibala); as long as he maintains it, the rays persist;
when he lets it go, the rays disappear. The Buddha's rays are like a lamp (dipa) and his miraculous power is
like the oil (meda); as long as the Buddha does not abandon his miraculous power, the rays do not
disappear.
Sutra: The rays shoot out across the region of the east and its universes as numerous as the sands of the
Ganges and the same for the ten directions.
1 ; / / j nJ ' i ikdnta cl Milinda, p. 118; Samdhinirmochana, p. 268. - The suryakanta, cold to the touch,
emits fire when it is exposed to the sun's rays. Cf. Kalu 1 1 i in liilnniili II apn <esi nil < Ilium I
.... < vad \ 111 asccli mini I in) ranqnilil; prcdominali i bnrnini enci i lndi'i n lh< in liki ill
suryakanta, cold to the touch, bul w inch burs! into flames when provoked by other fires."
on the other hand, the candrakdnta streams with water when exposed to the moon's rays. Cf. Bhavabhuti in
UUaramacarita, VI, p. 12: vikasati hi patangasyodaye pundankam .... candrakantah " the lotus blossoms at sunrise, bul
the moon-stone streams with water when the star with cold rays appears." (tr. N. Stchoupak, p. 117).
Sastra. - What is a trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu or trichiliomegachiliocosm?
Answer. - The Buddha defined it iyyakaroti) in the Tsa a han (Samyuktagama):
670
"A thousand suns (surya), a thousand moons (candra), a thousand JambudvTpas, a thousand
[AvaraJgodanTyas, a thousand Uttarakurus, a thousand Puravidehas, a thousand Sumerus, a thousand
Caturmaharajikas. a thousand Trayastrimsas, a thousand Yamas, a thousand Tusitas, a thousand
Nirmanaratis, a thousand Paranirmitavasavartins, a thousand Bramalokas, a thousand Mahabrahmas: all
that is called suliasixicuclikalokacllidtu (chiliomicrocosm) or cudika for short.
A group of a thousand universes of the sahasracudika type is called clvisuhusiumuclhyamalokadhdtu
(dichiliomesocosm).
A group of a thousand universes of the dvisahasramadhyama type is called
trisahasramahasdhasralokacllultu (irichiliomegachiliocosm)."
Thus we have the sahasralokadhatu ( = 1,000), then the dvisahasramadhyama
( = 1,000 x 1,000 or a million), finally the trisahasramahasahasra ( = 1,000 x 1,000,000 or a billion).
Therefore a billion suns, moons, etc., up to a billion Mahabrahmas is a trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu.
The creation (yivartand) and the destruction (samvartana) [of the universes within a group] takes place at
the same time.
Some say: The period of duration (sthiti) is a kalpa, the period of destruction (samvarta) is a kalpa, the
period of creation {vivarta) is a kalpa: that is the trisahasramahasasahralokadhatu. °^ The mahakalpa has
three disappearances: by water (apas), by fire (tejas) and by wind (ydyu)y°*-
[114 a] The small kalpa also has three disappearances: by knife (sastra), by plague (roga) and by famine
(durbhiksa). 6 ^ 2
The trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu rests on space (akasa). [On top of space, the circle of wind
(vayumandala)], on top of wind, [the circle] of water (abmandald); on top of the water, [the golden] earth
(kancanamayi bhumi); on the earth, people. Mount Sumeru has the abodes of two classes of gods, the
Caturmaharajikas and the Trayastrimsas. The others, the abodes of the Yama gods, etc., are lands formed
"'" The passage that follows is taken from three consecutive surras of the Samyuktagama: Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 424 426).
p. 1 1 lc-1 12a. There is no correspondent in the Pali Sarnyutta.
The same passage also occurs in various places in the Chinese Agamas: in the Cosmograph) of the Tch'ang a han (T 1, k.
18, p. 1 14b-c) and its three independent versions (T 23, k. 1, p. 177a; T 24, k. 1, p. 310b; T 26, k. 59, p. 799c.
on the other hand, the Pali Nikayas contain only one text relating to the three chiliocosms: it occurs in Ahguttara, V, p.
59): Ydvata Ananda caiidimasuriya pahlutranti disci 'bhanti virocana .... loko ayam vuccaf Ananda tisahassT
inaliasaliassilokadliatu.
It is the Greater Vehicle that has specially developed (he chiliocosms; see the references gathered by S. Bcal. Catena, p.
101 seq. See also Kosa, III, p. 170.
680 Kosa, III, p. 181-182.
681 ibid. p. 184,215.
682 ibid., p. 207.
of the seven jewels (saptaratnabhumi) and caused by their merits. '" The wind arises in space and reaches
the Mahabrahma gods and the levels formed of the seven jewels which all rest on the wind.
It is the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu that the Buddha's rays illumine and when these rays die out, other
rays arise which go to light up universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges. The same phenomenon is
produced in the regions of the south, the west and the north, in the intermediate directions and in the
regions of the zenith and the nadir.
Question. - Why does not their brilliance disappear the farther out they go out?
Answer: These rays have as their source (inula) the Buddha's miraculous power (rddhibala), and as long as
they persist, they will not disappear. Just as in the sea of the nagas (ndgahradd), the water does not dry up
by the power of the serpents, so these rays illumine the ten directions without disappearing in the course of
their route by the mental power of the Buddha.
Question. - In JambudvTpa there are many kinds of great rivers (mahanadi); there are some that surpass
even the Ganges. Why do you always use the ｅxpression 'as numerous as the sands of the Ganges'
(gagandnadivdlukopama)!
Answer. - 7) Because the Ganges is sandier than the other rivers.
2) Furthermore, the Gangetic region is the birthplace of the Buddha and was the place where he moved
about. Since his disciples knew it by sight, we use it as comparison.
3) Furthermore, the Buddha is a native of JambudvTpa. In JambudvTpa, four great rivers come from the
northern (uttaranta) boundaries and empty into the oceans in the four directions of space
(caturdisasamudra)P°^
At the northern boundaries, in the Snowy Mountains (Himavat), there is lake A na p'o ta to (Anavatapta);
in the lake there is a lotus golden in color and made of the seven jewels (suvarnavarndnisaptaratnamaydni
683
ibid., p. 138-141.
"° 4 The four great rivers of JambudvTpa have already been mentioned. The main sources arc: Tch'ang a han T 1, k. 18, p.
116c; separate versions of the Cosmography of the DTrgha: T 23, k. 1, p. 279a; T 24, k. 1, p. 313a; T 25, k. 1, p. 368a; Sa
po to sou li yu nai ye king, T 30, p. 812a; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 21, p. 658b-c, and k.34, p. 736b; Sin ti kouan king, I
159, k. 4, p. 307b; P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 5, p.21c-22a; Kosha, III, p. 147; Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 1, p. 869b (tr. Watters,
Travels, I, P. 32-34). - In his comn in ii en lln lil i . I inlilln hosa d i b Icn ill \ lici these rivers lal h ii
ou ii 1 > has four m >u lis: sihainul u I Ii n hi h i!i four great
rivers flow. Two of these rivers, those of the east and the south, go around the lake three times before continuing in their
course. Buddhaghosa tells us that the Can i lun < n n u i i'i til i <\\ i> mi c: avattaga i •
t/< 'ii md / ii i. All ol i'u uii "in in >i h i I ii itln red by .Vlalal kci ' itta
(I, p. 96) and Ganga (I, p. 733). Iconographic study, J. Przyluski. Lc syinholisine du pilicr dc Swnath, ML, p. 481-498. (I,
p. 733).
padmani), as large as a chariot wheel. *" [Its master], Anavatapata, king of the nagas (nagaraja), is a great
bodhisattva of the seventh bhtimi. °°
At the four corners of the lake there are four [mouths] from which the water flows out: /) at the east, the
Elephant's Mouth (Siang t'eou - hastimukha); ii) at the south, the Ox's Mouth {Nieou t'eou =
vrisabhamukha); Hi) at the west, the Horse's Mouth (Ma t'eou - asvamukha); iv) at the north, the Lion's
Mouth (Che tseu t'eou = simhamukha).
a) In the east, the Elephant's Mouth empties into the Heng (Gahga). Its bed consists of golden sand
(siivaraiHivaliika).
b) In the south, the Ox's Mouth empties into the Sin t'eou (Sindhu). Its bed also consists of golden sand.
c) In the west, the Horse's Mouth empties into the P'o tch'a (Vaksu). Its bed also consists of golden sand.
d) In the north, the Lion's Mouth empties into the Sseu t'o (STta). Its bed also consists of golden sand." 8 '
These four rivers all come from the mountain in the north. The Gahga comes from the mountain in the
north and empties into the eastern ocean (purvasamudra). - The Sindhu comes from the mountan in the
north and empties into the southern ocean (daksinasamudra). - The Vaksu comes from the mountain in the
north and empties into the western ocean (pascimasamudra). - The STta comes from the mountain in the
north and empties into the northern ocean (uttarasamiulra).
The Ganges is the most important of these four rivers; people come there from the four directions of space
and consider it to be a sacred river, the sins (dpatti), stains {inula) and faults (papa) of those who bathe
there are completely removed. 688 Since all people venerate and know this river, the sands of the Ganges
are taken as comparison.
4) Finally, the other rivers change their name vying with one another, but the Ganges keeps its name from
generation to generation; this is why the sands of the Ganges are taken for comparison and not the other
rivers.
[114 b] Question. - How many grains of sand are there in the Ganges?
"<" According to the Si yu ki, I.e., Anavatapta is located at the center of JambudvTpa, south of the Perfumed Mountain
{Gaiidhainadaiia) and north of the great Snowy Mountain (Iliinarat). This is evidently a mythical lake which would be
sought in vain on a map (Watters, I, p. 35). I hi liowi cr did not prevent Ih kin of( Ion Ii m ti ffi king in it itci
(Mahavamsa, XI, v. 30).
6s6 p or tn j s na g a raja, sec Hobogirin, s.v. Anokudatsu, p. 33; in Si yu ki, he is a bodhisattva of the eighth bhumi.
™' on the identification of the Sindhu, the Vaksu and the Sita with the Indus, the Oxus and the Tarim, see references of
L. de La Vallee Poussin in Kosa, III, p. 147, 148 as note.
688 Cf. Hopkins, Epic Mythology, p. 6. Buddhism condemns this superstition (cf. Thengatha, v. 236-251; tr. Rh. D.,
Sisters,?. 117-119).
Answer. - No mathematician is capable of knowing the number;" 8 " it is known only by the Buddhas and
dharmakaya bodhisattvas who are able to number the atoms (paramdnu) that arise and cease in the whole
of JambudvTpa and therefore they can also know the number of grains of sand in the Ganges!
Thus the Buddha was seated under a tree in a forest near the Jetavana. A brahmin approached him and
asked: "How many leaves (pattra) are there in this forest?" The Buddha immediately replied: "There are
such-and-such a number." The brahmin wondered how to prove that. He went behind a tree, tore off a few
leaves and went to hide them. He came back and asked the Buddha: "Exactly how many leaves are there in
this forest?" The Buddha answered by subtracting from the original number the number of leaves he had
torn off. The brahmin recognized [the precision of his calculation] and was filled with respect and faith; he
asked the Buddha to accept him as a monk and later he became an arhat.
690
This proves that the Buddha is able to know the number of grains of sand in the Ganges.
Question. - What is the number of those who became destined (niyata) to supreme complete enlightenment
in contact with the Buddha's rays? If it is enough to be touched by the Buddha's rays to find the Path, why
does the Buddha, who is so benevolent (mahdmaitri), not always emit his rays so that everyone will find
the Path? Why should it be necessary to observe morality (Ma), samadhi and wisdom (prajnd) in order to
finally find the Path?
Answer. - Beings find salvation by all sorts of different means. Some are saved by concentration
(samadhi), others by morality (sila) and preaching (desanadharma), still others because the Buddha's rays
touched their body. It is like a city (nagara) w ith many gates (dvara); the entry-ways are different but the
point of arrival is the same. Some people whom the Buddha's rays have touched find salvation; others who
see the rays and whom the rays have touched do not find salvation.
ACT II
Sutra: Then the Bhagavat smiled once more with all the pores of his skin and emitted rays that lit up the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu and extended to universes of the ten directions as numerous as the sands
of the Ganges. All the beings who were touched by their brilliance were destined to supreme complete
anlighlcnmcnt (Atha khalu Bhagavdn punar eva sarvaromakupchhyah smitam krtvci rasmin niscdrayati
sina yair a yam tiisaliasramaliasaliasraro lokadhdtuh parisphuto'bhut. tais ca dasasiksu
"°" The Samyutta has already affirmed this (IV, p. 376): Tarn kirn mamuisi maharaja. atth
valukasatasahassaiiti vti ti. - No hetain ayye.
" yo I [Lamotte] know this episode in the Buddha's life only from a mixed Sanskrit stanza from the Lalitc
Syamu rsi upagi pit 'flaw hit \ > <amagira racita
once, having gone to the rsi Syama who lived under a tree, he said: 'I want you to count the number of leaves thai this
tree has', after having counted them and knowing how many there were, you told him the number in an even voice." (tr.
Foucaux, p. 130).
In the corresponding passage in the Chinese translation entitled l-'ang konang la (chouang yen king, T 187, k. 5, p.
566M0, the rsi is called Clio mo t3 7 and 8: 64 and 1 i ). which gives Syamu in Sanskrit.
'mya sprstas te
sarveniyata blun uticitfn \ bodhaii)
Sastra: Above, the Buddha smiled with his whole body (sarvakayat); why does he smile here with all the
pores of his skin (sarvaromakupebhyah)!
Answer. - When he smiled with all his body, he was smiling with a coarse part (sthulabhaga); now when
he smiles with all his pores, he is smiling with a subtle part (sul • ' , h i)
Moreover, when he smiled with his whole body, the rays could be counted; now when he smiles with all
his pores, his rays are innumerable (asamkhyeya).
Finally, those who had not been saved by the rays emitted from his body now obtain salvation by
encountering the rays emitted from his pores. Thus, when a tree (vrksa) is shaken (dhumoti) to gather the
fruit, the ripe fruit (paripakvaphala) fall at once, but the tree must be shaken again to get the green fruit;
the net (Jala) [114c] must be cast in order to take fish (matsya) and, if it is not full, it must be cast again
until the fish are taken.
As for the reasons for smiling, they are the same as above.
ACT III
Sutra: Then by means of his usual light (prakrtiprabha) the Bhagavat illumined the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu; this brilliance extended to all the universes of the east as numerous as the
sands of the Ganges, and it was the same in the ten directions. All the beings who were touched by this
light were destined to supreme complete enlightenment (Atha khulu Bhugavan prakrtiprabhaya
trisahasramahu uisra htkadhati vahh \ i. yclvcit pur\ i ig aidhdlukopama
lokadhdtavas taya prabhaya avahhasita abhuvan. yclvat dasasu diksu gahganaclFvclIukopama lokadhdtvas
taya prabhaya avabhasita abhuvan. ye ca sattvas taya prabhaya sprstas te sarve niyatd abhuvan
anuttarayam samyaksambodhau).
Sastra: First the Buddha smiled with his entire body (sarvakayati) then he emitted rays from the pores of
his skin (romakupebhyah); why now does he exhibit his usual light {prakrtiprabha) to light up the ten
directions?
Answer. - Some people who have seen the different rays [shooting out from the body and the pores of the
Buddha] believed that this was not the light of the Buddha. [Now] seeing the great development of the
usual light of the Buddha, they are filled with joy (mudita) and. recognizing the true light of the Buddha,
they finally reach anuttarasamyaksambodhi.
Question. - What is the usual light (prakrtiprabha) of the Buddha?
Answer. - It is a light one armspan in width (vydmaprabha) surrounding the body of the Buddha on all
sides; the Bodhisattva possessed it since his birth and it is one of the thirty-two marks (laksana) called
vyamaprabhalaksana?" *
Question. - Why is the usual light of the Buddha one armspan in width ( vyama) and not larger?
Answer. - The usual light of the Buddha is immense (apramand) and lights up the universes of the ten
directions. The miraculous bodily light of the Buddha Shakyamuni is immense; it is the width of one
armspan, a hundred armspans, a thousand prabhedakoti of armspans and fills up the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu and the ten directions. However, the Buddhas' custom is to manifest in the
world of the five corruptions (pancakasdyaloka), where beings are of middling qualities (guna) and
knowledge (jndna), a brilliance of only one armspan {vydmaprabha). If he showed a larger brilliance, the
people today, of little merit (alpapunya) and weak faculties (mrdvindriya), would be unable to tolerate the
"*1 A number of references to the thirty-two marks have been collected above. In the lists presumed to be the oldest,
those of the Nikayas and the Ag im i th | n marl i missing 01 is put among the eighty secondan marl
(anuvyanjana), but it does appear in the later lists: Tchong hiu mo ho ti king, 21st mark (T 191, k. 3, p. 940b);
Pancavimsati: 15th mark (T 223, k. 24, p. 395c); Da i ,h i ril i (i d. Sten Konow, p. 110): Bodh. bhiimi, 12th mark (p.
375; Vibhasha, 15th mark, (T 1543, k. 177, p. 888b). The latter adds the following definition: "The mark which consists
of having a usual light (prakrtiprahlia) the width of one armspan (siun = vyama). Surrounding the body of the Buddha
there is always a light, one armspan in width in all directions which slimes constantly day arid night."
In the Avadanas, on almost every page, there is a completely stereotyped physical description of the Buddha where this
characteristic is always mentioned: cf. Avadanasataka in 32 different places (e.g., p. 3, 18, 37, etc.); Divyavadana (e.g., p.
45-47, 75, etc.): Atha ' t i im "Then N. saw the Bhagaval
li ii d ith Hi hirl I marl oi the Gi I Ian, his body i pl< mJ .i< i li th i hi i lii >i i i li 1 havii iglit <
i rmsp mi hi thi light of a thousand suns, like a moving mountain of jewels, excellent in every way." The
austerities which Sakyamuni hail undergone had dulled his thirty-two marks, but according to the Lalitavistara, p. 270,
thc\ reappeared along with the vyamaprahliata when the future Buddha ate the milk gruel offered to him by Sujata. Some
texts state that this light, one armspan in width, has a circular shape (cf. Divyavadana, p. 361:
vyainaprahhainandalainanditani Bliagavato rupain).
A. Foucher, Art Greco-houddiquc, 11, p. 366-370, has studied representations of this usual light of the Buddha on Greco-
Buddhist monuments. It is a flaming aureole surrounding the Buddha's body on all sides. "Naturally circular around a
sealed person, ii has a tendency to become oval around a standing person." The author refers to the follow ing monuments:
ii i li i i i hi I In I clu urn i pi niin h real miracl I Sra l wh I >nJ i m ri 'In I l'i i uJJ' i
there is a bodhisattva dressed like a Buddha, seated and surrounded by a luminous halo (Art Grcco-houddhique, II, p. 331,
fig. 459; Bl^ f Bu Idlust 4it p. XXVII); a statue in the Calcutta Museum showing the Buddha seated with a
circular aureole into w Inch are inserted episodes of the Buddha's life (ibid., II, p. 351, fig. 463); a bas-relief in the British
Museum dedicated to the legend of Drpamkara, where the future Buddha to whom the prediction is about to be given is
represented with a radiating aurolc (ibid., I. p. 277. fig, 140): a coin from ICaniska representing a Buddha with nimbus and
aureole (ibid., II, pi. V, 9)The aureole or halo which surrounds the entire body is to be distinguished from she nimbus
(inukliainaudala) which surrounds only the head. Sometimes both arc rcprscntcd a! the same time on the bas-rclifs of
Gandhara (ibid., 1, p. 192, fig. 76; II, p. 205, fig. 405), and especially on the monumcrnts of central Asia; see A. von Le
Coq, Bilderatlas zw ku I th I Asiens, Berlin, 1925, fig. 178); fig. 243 (mural painting in cave 103 at
Touen-houang); fig. 245 (cave 111); fig. 246 (frieze at Qyzil); fig. 248-249 (statues of seated Buddha at Qyzil).
light. When a person sees a god, his eyes are blinded because the greater the [outer] light, the more the eye
contracts. It is to people of keen faculties (tiksnendriya) and eminent merit (gurupunya) that the Buddha
shows his immense brilliance (apamdnaprabha).
Besides, there are people who, seeing the usual light of the Buddha, rejoice (pramodante) and find
salvation.
[k. 8, 115 a] The king makes a gift of the leftovers from his usual table to his inferiors, and the latter
receive them rejoicing greatly. The Buddha does the same. Some people feel no joy in seeing the other
many lights of the Buddha but, on contemplating his usual light, they are destined to
anuttarasamyaksambodhi.
ACT IV
Sutra: Then the Bhagavat put out his broad tongue and covered the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu with it.
Having lighted it up, he began to smile. From his tongue there shot out innumerable millions of
prabhedakotis of rays; on each of these rays appeared lotuses of precious jewels with a thousand petals
golden in color; on these lotuses sat magical Buddhas cross-legged preaching the six virtues; beings who
heard them were established in supreme complete enlightenment (Atha khalu Bhagavdms tasydm velayam
jihvendriyam itiriidinaydindsa. r< < / < ha kadhdtuin jihvcndri\ ndc chdddmdsa.
tain sphuritvd smitam akarot. tasmdj jilivcitdriyddaiickdiii rasiniprabhcdakotishatasahasrdni nisivruli
sasmimukhe ca, 'at tmaydni siivariH iti sahasrapati i ttnany abhuvan.
tcsu 'Itarmadesanam
desyantah. ye ca sattvds tain dharinadcsanam srnvanti te niyatd bhavanty anuttaram
samyaksambodhati)P '-
Sastra: Question. - The Buddha Bhagavat is venerable (bhadanta) and respected (gurukrta). Why then
does he put out his broad tongue (prabhutajihva): one would say out of thoughtlessness?
Answer. - Three times the Buddha shot out rays of light previously that illumined the beings of the ten
directions and brought them to deliverance (vimoksa). Now, wishing to preach the Mahaprajnaparamita
which is profound (gambhtra), difficult to sound out (durvigahyd), difficult to understand (duravabodha)
and difficult to believe (durgrahya), he puts out his broad tongue as a test (saksin), for the words
pronounced by such a big tongue are necessarily true.""^
" y2 Cf. Pancavimsati, p. 7-8; Satasahasrika, p. 11-12.
""-* As we have seen above, the 27th mark, pi ahl i i i oes along with the cryptorchidy of the Buddha. Its
symbolism seems to have varied in the course of time: according to the Aloka, p. 919, it was a reward for gentleness of
i ! i / t ' hvata) in the Mpps and, as we shall see later, the Divyavadana and the
Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, it is a proof of truth.
THE BUDDHA'S JOURNEY TO SALA 694
once, having spent the Rains Retreat (varsa) in the country of Cho p'o t'i (Sravasff), the Buddha started out
to travel followed by Ananda and was about to enter a village of brahmins (brahmanagrdma). Knowing
that the miraculous power of the Buddha would convert his subjects, the king was very worried and
agitated. "If he comes here today, would everyone still love me?" he said to himself. And so he issued the
following edict: "Whoever gives food to the Buddha or listens to his words will be fined five hundred
karsapanas." Hardly had the edict been issued than the Buddha arrived; preceding Ananda and holding his
begging bowl, he entered the village to beg for his food. All the inhabitants had closed their doors and did
not respond; the Buddha returned with his bowl empty {dhautena patr -end) .""^
" y4 In this story the Mpps combines two episodes of the Buddha's life: the first, taken from the Pindasiitra, tells about the
Buddha's trip to a village of brahmins and his return with an empty bowl; the second, taken from the
' ' ' / /< i A ii liih iboul the olTcrin f the brahmin lad the disbelief of her husb mcl md tin final triumph
of the Buddha. There are numerous versions of the surra and the avadana in question. The way in which they are
combined here allows us to grasp in a vivid w ay the litei ary processes used by the Buddhist compilers.
References to the Pindasutra:
1) Four different versions: i) Samyutta, I, p. 113-114 (tr. Rh. D., Kindred Sayings, I, p. 143-144: Geiger. I, p. 177-178; -
ii) Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 1095), k. 30, p. 288a; Hi) Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 41, p. 772a-c (tr. in Hobogirin, p. 159b, with
some inaccuracies: thus P'o lo yuan means 'Garden of the brahmins' and not 'Garden of Benares'; the Buddha of the
Bhadrakalpa called Kiu leou souen is Krakucchana and not Krosa); - iv) Dhammapadattha, III, p. 257-258 (tr.
Burlingame, Legends, III, p. 72-73).
2) Numerous allusions: Mpps, T 1509, k. 9, p. 121c; Milinda, p. 154 (tr. Rh. D., I, p. 219); - Legend of Asoka:
Divyavadana, p. 350; A yu wang tchouan, T 2042, k. 5, p. 119b; A yu wang king, T 2043, k 8, p. 159c (tr. Przyluski,
Asoka, p. 357); - Ta tchouang yen louen king, T 201 (no. 54), k. 9, p. 308b (tr. Huber, Sutrdlatnkdra, p. 267); Ken pen
chouo... yao che, T 1448, k. 18, p. 94c; - P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 76, p. 392a22.
1 l n ili adana This is the fourth avadana in the Divya, p. 67-72. - It is also in the
Vhila u >i idin Vina\ ICcn ] n houo... yao che, T 1448, k. 8, p. 36a3-37a5. - A slightly different story in Kieou tsa
p'i yu king, T 206 (no. 31), k. 1, p. 55c-516a (tr. Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 393-395.
°" 5 In the Sanskrit and Chinese sources, this brahmin village is called Sala; in (he Tali sources, Paricasala 'the five sala
trees'; it was a place in \tagadha (Samyutta). The Buddha came (hci nun he visiloi tival ( I i
which the young boys and the young ,il han A ili I hi illagci l i used alms to the Buddha because they were
possessed (anvitvittlia) by Mara papimat. The Mpps is the only slightly more expanded source that passes over the action
of Mara in silence. The other texts refer to a twofold conversation between Mara and She Buddha, bul their story is
somewhat incoherent. The Pali version of the Samyutta is evidently disordered and that of the Tsa a han is preferable.
Here is how the order of events may be restored: When the Buddha was returning with an empty bowl, Mara went to find
him and asked: "Has the monk received alms?" The Buddha replied: "It is you, O Evil one, who has prevented people
from giving alms", and he added this stanza (Samyutta, 1, p 114; Tsa a han, p 288a): .1/;// VI nam
papam vipaccati. "Mara has committed an evil deed, an offence against the Tathagata: do you think, O Evil one, that
your sin will not bear friut for you?"
Then Vlara invited the Buddha to return to the village The Dhammapadatth III p . i mm that hi intention was to
ridicul (/ //') th Buddl I i <li canoni I mi ire prcci lara pi misi lo forci nn inh u n iin to ivi him
In ndam lacchati " What is the reason for this about-face? This is given by the
At that time, there was an old woman in a house""" [in place of lao chjen, read lao niujen as in the rest of
the story], who had in her hands a chipped clay dish (bhinnamrdbhajana) full of foul broth (saktu) which
she had come out onto her doorstep to throw away. She saw the Buddha who was going away with his
empty bowl. Seeing the Buddha - with his major marks (laksana), his minor marks (anuvyanjana), his
golden color (suvarnavarna), his urna, his usnisa and his aureole one armspan in breadth (yyamprabha) -
returning with an empty bowl and without food, the old woman thought: "A being as marvellous as this
ought to eat the food of the gods. If he is embodied and begs with his bowl, it is surely out of loving-
kindness (maitrT) and compassion (karuna) for all beings." Filled with pure faith (sraddhavisuddhi), she
Tseng yi a han. Mara hopes thai the Buddha and his monks, overwhelmed by the gifts of the villagers, would become
attached to these benefits and, no longer knowing how to deal with luxury, would always seek for more sensory
pleasures. But the Buddha, leading the intentions of the Evil one, refused by the following stanza (Samyutta, I, p. 114;
Tsa a han, p. 288a) i i i i atha n "In perfect joy we live, we who
possess nothing. Joy will be our food like the radiant gods."
The A tu wang tchouan (p. 1 19b) has a slightly different stanza: "Those who rejoice without having an abundance have a
calm, light, active body. If in regard to food and drink, one docs not have desirous thoughts, one's mind docs not cease to
be joyous, like She Abhasvara gods" (tr. Prz\ luski).
these stanzas are missing in the Tseng yi a han version (p. 772). The Buddha simply reproaches Mara for having
pr< in ,1 'li alias; i i. mi li in him ilm nd i i ill ih'i i imilar mishap had previously occurred in the Bhadrakalpa
to the Buddha IM'akucchanda who was depending on this city with his 40,000 disciples. Mara pledged the population to
refuse to give them any alms. When his monks returned with their empty bowls. ICrakucchanda asked them to spurn the
i mi i i oi !i n i in i od i i ' i Ijsan i f. ICosa, 111, p. 1 19) and k only tl
five kinds of superhuman food (dliyana, prauidliana. smrti, vimoksa, priti). Mara then invited the monks to return to the
ill nd ti in i Ih n w ill In ,■> i n ii lm d them with alms. Krakucchanda then addressed a sermon to his monks:
"Material benefits cause one to fall into the evil destinies and prevent one from attaining asamskrta (or nirvana).... The
monks who are attached to gain do not realize the fivefold dharmakaya.... one must prevent the arising of the notion of
profit..." Mara turned about and disappeared.
""" By a device of compilation, the Mpps places the following story also in Sala, the city of the brahmins. - In the
Divyavadana, p. 67. the scene tales place in Nyagrodhika, and the woman who makes the offering to the Buddha is the
wife of one of the biahmins who cairn, li in ICapilavastu l< lyagi idhil i (Kapihn \ I
Nyagrodlukayain nivista). - The story in the Muia: u \ astiv adin \ inaya (T1448, k. 8, p. 36a) begins as follows: "Then the
Bhagavat left Rajagrha and went to To ken chou ts'oucn {'the village of the tree of many roots', or Nyagrodhagrama).
Wearing his robes and carrying his begging-bowl, the Buddha entered this village to beg for alms. At Kapilavastu (here
w as a married woman, etc " - In the Kieou tsa p'i yu king (T 206, k. 1, p. 515c), the scene took place outside the city of
Sravasti.
flic village of Nyagrodhika of which the Divya and the Mulasai i tv . din \ ina) i peak is probably the same as the
Nigrodharama of the Pali sources. We must distinguish two Nigrodharamas, one near Rajagrha (Digha. II, p. 116) the
other near Kapilavastu i Vinaya. 1. p. 82: Mahav astu, III, p. 101, etc.). In the latter was the tree at the foot of which the
ascetic Kanha had practiced his austerities, a tree which bore fruit eternally by decree of the god Sakka. The Buddha,
\ il in I iiii ii i n i i i ni n I i ild ih ! nh | i 1 i ' ,i ika no. 440, IV, p. 6 seq.) to Ananda who asked him
why he smiled. According to the Divya, p. 70, the village of Nyagrodhika took its name from a marvellous fig tree thai
could shelter five hundred chariots in its shade.
wanted to make an offering (puja) to the Buddha; but not having what she would have liked to give, she
said, quite confused, to the Buddha: "I would very much like to make offerings to you but I do not have the
means. Here is some spoiled food. The Buddha can take what he needs." Knowing the purity (visuddhi) of
her mind (citta), her faith (sraddha) and her veneration (arcana), the Buddha stretched out his hand and
received in his bowl the food which was given to him."" '
Then he began to smile and emitted rays of five colors that lighted up heaven [115b] and earth and
returned to him through his urna (woolly tuft between his eyebrows). Joining his palms together (anjalim
pranamya) and bending his knee I Inuma la npn idpya) Ananda said to the Buddha: "Bhagavat, I
would like to hear the reason why you smile. "698 The Buddha said to Ananda: "Do you see this old
woman who, out of a mind of faith (prasadactita), has given me some food?" Ananda replied that he saw
her. The Buddha continued: "This old woman who has given food to the Buddha will receive the reward
for her merit for fifteen kalpas among gods and humans and will not fall into the bad destinies (durgati).
Later, she will receive a human male body, will leave home (pravrajita) and practice the Path. She will
become a pratyekabuddha and will enter nirvana-without-residue (nil upadhisesanirvdna)."^^
697
Cf. the story in the Divyavadana, p. 67: adraksit sd brdhmai il I , utan dvatrimsata
niahapunisalaksanailj .... prastulcna Bhagavatc saktuhhiksani dattavati.
" y ° Here the Mpps summarizes in two lines a long development about the smile and the prediction of the Buddh;i w inch
occurs in stereotyped form many times in the Avadanasataka (to be precise, in 20 places, e.g., p. 4-6, 10-12, 19-21, etc.)
and the Divyavadana (p. 67-69). Here are the main lines of this development: It is a custom thai, al the moment w hen the
Buddha Bhagavats show iheir smile, blue, yellow, red and white rays (nilapitaloliitcn ah) il ish out of the
Bhagavat's mouth, some of which go up and some of which go down. Those that go down penetrate into the hells
(uaraka): those that go up penetrate to the gods from the Caturmaharajikas up to the Akanistas who cry out: "anityam
• I , i ' i , " and ch i'ii i i i i,i i Havin travelled through th Iri ihasramaha ihasralokadhatu, the i
i i ih ! 1 m ii nil 'in I i i ing as to whether the Buddha wishes to show such-and-
such a thing, the rays return to him by a different part of the body. If they disappear in the back (prstha) of the Buddha, it
is because he wants to reveal past actions (affiant karma); if they disappear into his front (purastat), ii is because lie
wishes to predict the future (andgata). The returning of the rays into the soles of his feet (pddatala) of the Buddha
l'n Ji i i irth n in II ( o i , ini i i.i i ' i I i < (//'), a birth im v n 'I < min lis (tirya p, tti): into the big loi
I da (i /), a birth among the prcta into the kn (janii). a birth among men (ma optij l: into the palm of tin
left hand ( va < ita /), the ro Ity (rajya) oi bal ! i rtin: into the palm of the right hand (dai i iratala). the
i i- Ji il i cakra\ inn ml • im i >i i I irth un m <h ids (dc\ ti) inl • the month (asya). the bodhi of the
sravakas; into the urna. the bodhi of the pratyckabudtlhas: into the usiusa. She in ill u i im il iml < dhi >i iIm Buddh i
Then in prose and verse, Ananda asks the Buddha the meaning of these rays and smile, and the Buddha answers by
applying to a pai 1 1 ul l i iln symbolism just described.
"^ Cf. Divyavadana, p. 69-70: Bhagavdn aha. drstd tavaisd Ananda hrahinaijaddrika .... ndma pratyekahuddho
hliavisyati. I he rays returning into the Buddha's urna already showed that this woman would attain the bodhi of the
pratyckabuddhas. The Buddha further predicts thai for She fifteen kalpas thai separate her from this bodhi, she will escape
the bad destinies and be reborn among gods and humans. In place of the 'fifteen kalpas', the Divya (p. 69) and the
Yhilasarvastivadin Vinaya (p. 36b) read 'thirteen kalpas': I [Lamottc] think thai the first reading is belter: il is thai of the
Avadanasataka, 1, p. 128, 133..
There was, at that moment near the Buddha, a brahmin who spoke the following stanza:
You are of the solar race, from a family of Ksatriyas,
You are the crown prince of king Suddhodana,
But you are a great liar about this food.
How could [the gift] of such foul food have such a great reward? '®®
Then the Buddha put out his broad tongue (prabhutajihvd) and, covering his face with it up to his hair-line
(sarvam mukhamanclahim avacchadayati ydvat kesaparyantam), he said to the brahmin: "You have read
the texts (sastra): the person who has such a tongue, would he tell lies (mrsdvdda)?' The brahmin replied:
"The person whose tongue can cover his nose (ghrdna) tells no lies; what can be said about the person
whose tongue reaches his hairline? I fully believe that the Buddha does not lie, but I do not understand how
such a small gift (ddna) can assure such a great reward (yipdka).^
Then the Buddha said to the brahmin: "Have you ever seen something extraordinary (adbhuta) and rare
(durdrsa)?" The brahmin replied: "I have. once I was travelling with some other brahmins and I saw a
nyagrodha tree (Ficus indica) the shade (chdya) of which covered five hundred chariots (sata) without
being completely used up. That was an extraordinary and rare thing." The Buddha then asked him: "What
was the size of the seed of that tree (kiyatpramdnam tasya vrksasya btjamyl" He answered: "It was a third
as big as a mustard seed (sarsapatrtiyabhdgamdtram)." The Buddha said: "Who would believe you when
you say that such a big tree could come from such a small seed (kas te sraddhdsyati iyatpramdnasya
byasydyam mahdvrkso nirvrtta itiyl" The brahmin asnwered: "Nevertheless, that is so, Bhagavat; I saw it
with my own eyes, it is not a lie." The Buddha said: "It is the same for me: I see that this old woman who
has given alms to the Buddha with faith and pure mind will attain a great fruit of retribution
(mahdvipdkaphala), just like a big tree comes from a tiny seed. Besides, the Tathagata is a field of merit
(punyaksetra) filled with marvels." '"^
The brahmin's heart opened and his mind was liberated. Prostrating himself on the ground with all five
limbs (pancamandedakena candanam krtvd), he repented of his error and said to the Buddha: "It was
l-'rom the Divya and the .Vlulasarvastivadin Vinaya, we know (hat the pratyckabuddha will have the name Siipranihita. in
Chinese Chan yuen.
' 00 This stanza is missing in the other sources.
'"1 Cf. Divya, p. 71: Tato Bhagavatd mukhaj jihvam nirnamayya .... samprajm in, n m < ivad, • hhaseta. no bho
< 1,1111,1111,1
But in the Divya and the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, the Buddha puts his tonguue out only after having convinced the
brahmin by the parable of the fig-tree.
™2 Cf. Divya, p. 70-71: Bhagavdn aha. kim manyase bid hi tana, asti ka \ i i >huto itha B) ai
asiniiiii utpaiuie gathain hliasate.
vatha kset > hijeiui pratyaks, t\ n iha dvija
cvdin may a hraluuaija drstain ctad alpani ca hijain mahati ca sanipad hi.
foolish of me not to believe the Buddha." The Buddha preached the Dharma in many ways to him and the
brahmin obtained the first fruit of the Path [namely, srotaapattiphala].
Then raising his hand, he uttered a great shout and addressed the villagers thus: "The gates of immortality
(amrtadvard) are open to all beings! Why do you not enter therein?" All the brahmins in the village paid
the five hundred karsapanas and went with the king to the Buddha and paid homage to him. They all said:
"When one can attain the taste of immortality (amrtarasa), who cares for five hundred karsapanas?" The
inhabitants went in a crowd and the royal edict was abrogated. The king of the brahmins and his ministers
(amdtya) and subjects took refuge (saranam gatah) in the Buddha and the Dharma. All the villagers
attained [115 c] pure faith (visuddhashraddhd).'^
It is thus that the Buddha puts out his broad tongue (prabhutajihva) to [convert] the unbelievers.
Question. - In the case of the brahmin, the Buddha put out his tongue and covered his face with it. How is
it that here his tongue and his rays extend as far as the trisahasramahasmahasra-lokadhatu?
Answer. - When it was a matter of people of little faith, the Buddha's tongue [was limited] to covering his
face up to his hair-line, but here it is a matter of the great interests of the Prajnaparamita, so his long tongue
covers the entire trisahasramahasasralokadhatu.
Question. - If it is already extraordinary that all the inhabitants of one village should be able to see the
Buddha's tongue, is it not still more extraordinary that when he preaches the Prajnaparamita, all the great
assemblies {apramdnasamnipdta) of this region and others should also be able to see it? Besides, the range
of the human eye does not go beyond a certain number of li and you assume here that it extends to an entire
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu! Since the eye does not see that far, that is difficult to believe.
Answer. - The Buddha uses his miraculous power (rdclhihala) skillfully (upuycnu) so that all beings can
see his tongue cover the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu. If the Buddha did not communicate his
miraculous power to them, even [the bodhisattvas] of the ten bhumis would not know the Buddha's mind
(citta), but if he does communicate his miraculous power, the animals (tiryagyoni) themselves [know the
mind of the Buddha. [It is thanks to this intervention] that, in one of the following chapters of the
Prajnaparamita, all the people see the assembly of the Buddha A tch 'ou (Aksobya) and contemplate it face
to face. '"4 And when the Buddha had spoken of the various splendors (alamkaravyuha) of the universe of
'"■' This last paragraph is peculiar to the Mpps: it aims to show the linkage between the two episodes artificially
connected here.
™4 it i s because the Buddha communicates to them his miraculous power that the listeners to the Prajnaparamita have
seen with their own eyes the assembly of the Buddha Aksobhya; but, continues the Astasahasrika, p. 465: "when the
Bhagavat withdrew his miraculous power. She Bhagavat Aksobhya, lathagata, arhat ami completely enlightened, was no
longer visible" (pratisanihrte ca Bhagavata tasmiii sainyaksanihuddliah sanidrsyate sina).
Buddha A mi t'o (Amitabha) and when Ananda had said to him: "I would like to see them", the Buddha
caused the entire assembly to see the splendors of the universe of Buddha Won leang cheou
(Amitayus). '"* It is the same for seeing the tongue of the Buddha.
With his long tongue, the Buddha covers the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, then he begins to smile. The
reasons for this smile are the same as above.
Question. - Previously, the Buddha had emitted rays (rasmi) From his tongue; why does he again emit rays
from his tongue?
Answer. - 7) Because he wants all beings to have solid faith (sraddha).
2) Moreover, the color of his tongue is like the pure light of coral (pravdda, vidruma). In order to produce
all these characteristics, he sends out rays again.
3) Finally, these rays change into precious lotuses with a thousand petals and golden in color
(sahasrapattrdni suvarnanirbhdsdni ratnamaydni padmdni). These lotuses, the rays of which shine like the
rising sun (suryodaya), come from his tongue.
Question. - Why does the Buddha create precious lotuses of this kind by metamorphosis (nirmdnd) on
these rays?
Answer.- Because the Buddha wishes to sit on them.
Question. - He could sit on a mat (manca, katva); why does he need these lotuses?
Answer. - 7) The mat is the usual seat of worldly (loka) people and of lay people (avaddtavasana) [but not
of the Buddha].
2) Furthermore, the lotuses are delicate (slaksnd) and the Buddha wants to manifest his miraculous power
(rddhibala) by sitting on them without crushing them.
3) He wishes also to adorn the seat of the holy Dharma {saddharmamanda).
4) In general, lotuses are small and do not have the purity of perfume [116 a] (gandhavisuddhi) nor the size
of those of the Buddha. The size of the lotus among people is no greater than a foot. on lake Man t'o k'i ni
(Mandakini) and lake A na p'o ta to (Anavatapta), ' u ° the lotuses are as large as a chariot wheel
(rathacakra). In heaven, the precious lotuses are even larger. The lotus on which the Buddha is seated
cross-legged is a hundred thousand prabheda times larger. It forms a floral platform of marvelous perfume
on which one can sit.
- For the Buddha Aksobhya who already appears in the Prajha literature and the Saddharmapundanka before becoming
one of the five dhyanibiiddhas. especially venerated in the Shingon sect, see Hobogirin. . ishuku, p. 39-40.
705 The Mpps is referring here to the SukhavatTvyuha, v. 39 (tr. M. Miiller, SBE, XLIX, 2, p. 49-61: Evam ukta dyusman
\nanda Bhaga\ vtam aa inn it tain eti hodlu ti , inani tain hliik u uitgha i
'Wo Mandakini and Anavatapta are two of the seven large lakes of the Himalaya (Anguttara, IV, p. MM: Jataka, V, p. 415;
Sumahgala, I p. 1 04), Anavatapta has ahead) been described; there is a detailed description of Mandakini in Sarattha, I,
p. 281.
5) Finally, after the kalpa fire, everything is empty (sunya); then by the causal power of the merits of
beings (sattvapunyahetupratyayabala), the winds (ydyii) come from all the directions and, interacting and
mixing with one another, they are able to support the great waters (mahapah). on these waters there is a
man with a thousand heads, two thousand arms and two thousand legs called H ei mieou ( V'isnu). From his
navel (ndbhi) comes a precious lotus, golden in color, with a thousand petals, the light and rays of which
are like the combined light of a thousand suns. on this lotus there is seated cross-legged a man who, in
turn, possesses an infinite light. He is called Fan t'ien wang (Brahmadevaraja) who mentally gives birth to
eight sons who, in their turn, give rise to the heavens, the earth and people. '"' Brahmadevaraja has
eliminated all sexual desire (rdga) and all hatred (dvesa) without residue; thus, when people cultivate
(bhdvayanti) the pure practice of the dhyanas {dhydnasuddhacarya) and abandon sexual desire (rdga), they
are said to follow brahmanic conduct (brahmacarya) P ^° . And the wheel of Dharma which the Buddha put
into motion is sometimes called dharmacakra and sometimes brahmacakra.9 This Brahmadevaraja is
707 This is the classical myth of the birth of Brahma, told in the Mahabharata (3.272.44; 12.207.13) and which gives to
Visnu the name padmanahha, and to Brahma the epithets pmlina -pi, -jiita, -hliuni, -yoni, -samhhava, etc. Although the
usual mount of Brahma is a swan, the Hindu iconography often shows him seated on a lotus. The Mpps is not the only
Buddhist source that tells this Hindu myth; it is also found in another u ork, also translated by ICumarajiva, the Tsa p'i yu
king, T 207 (no. 31). p. 529b (tr. Chavanncs, Contes, II, p. 53-54). Ki tsang also records it in his Tchong kouan louen
chou, T 1824, k. 1, p. 14c.
'°° The word hralwiacarva is of brahmin origin and designates in a general way the rigorous observation of prescribed
rules and, in a more specialized way, the [sexual] continence imposed on the novice during his studies at the foot of the
master. Cf. the Manusmrti, II, v. 249:
cviini carati yo hraliinacaryain aruplutah
sa gaccliati uttainain stliaiiain na celiajayate piintih,.
the word has pascd into Buddhism wish this twofold meaning. IS designates She holy life, the religious life, notably in die
form of the arhal / c \ < i i i il hastil the latter meaning i videnced in the .Vlpi
k. 8, p. 120c: "There are beings who follow the ten wholesome courses of action (kusalakarmapatha) but who have not
yet destroyed lust. Thus the sutra here praises those who practice the conduct of king Brahma, (brahmacarya) by cutting
through thcii i ual d \u In lid tl Mho ho practice brahmacarya purely n< < i mcll bad l i i / ) di>
person who is addicted to lust has an ugly malodorous body; thus, io praise those who have cul through lust, ii is said thai
they do not have a bad smell." Later the Mpps , k. 20. p. 2 i I b. w ill return lo this subject.: "The gods who have cut through
sexual desire are Brahmas, a term applied io all the gods of the firm realm (rupadluitu); this is why the method of cutting
through sexual desirrc is called brahmacarya."
709 p rom t h e ear ii es t texts on, besides dharmacakra, the ｅxpression brahmacakra occurs: Majjhima, !, p. 09: Samyutta.
II, p. 27; Anguttara, II, p. 9, 24; III, p. 417; V, p. 33; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 348), k. 14, p.98al5; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k.
19, p. 645b29 lite Mpps, k. 25, p. 245b (tr. Hobogirin, Bon, p. 120), interprets it as follows: "The wheel of Brahma beads
this name because it is pure ... or else because Brahma means vast (hrluuit): now the wheel of Dharma which the Buddha
turned extends to the entire world; or again because the Buddha taught she lour dwellings of Brahma (the four limitless
ones) ( hm Ira); or also 1 i it th tart, it wa Brahma king of the gods, who invited the Buddha to turn the
wheel of Dharma; or also, in order to please those who venerate the god Brahma. - Sometimes the Buddha said 'wheel of
Dharma', sometimes 'wheel of Brahma' ■ What difference is there between these two terms? - They are synonyms.
Nevertheless, according to some, the wheel of Brahma refers to the four limitless ones (aprainana) and the wheel of
seated on a lotus; this is why the Buddha, who conforms to current usage {samvrtyanuvartandt), also sits
crosslegged on a precious lotus to teach the six paramitas, and those who listen to this sermon necessarily
reach anuttarasamyaksambodhi.
Question. - The Buddha Sakyamuni creates innumerable thousands of prabhedakoti of Buddhas by
emanation. How can they all preach the Dharma at the same time? It is said in the A p'i fan (Abhidharma):
"There cannot be two minds (citta) at the same time (ekaksana): when the apparitional (nirmita) Buddhas
speak, the master who creates them (nirmatr) must be silent; when the creating master speaks, the
apparitional creations must be silent."' *" How do these [apparitional Buddhas] preach the six paramitas all
at the same time?
Dharma to the four Truths (satya): or again, we say 'wheel of Brahma' because the Path is attained by means of the four
limitless ones, and 'wheel of Dharma' insofar as it is attained by other dharmas; or again,'wheel of Brahma' is used in
reference to the four dhyanas and 'wheel of Dharma' in reference to the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment
(ho i una); or agaii heel ol Brahm 1 ippl d to tin i <>i < i ind / md 'wheel of Dharma'
to that of wisdom (prajna)."
The words hrahmaearya and hrahmaeakra are not the only signs of brahmin influence on the Buddhist vocabulary. I he
Mpps could also add that, according to JTvaka, "the Bhagavat is Brahma" (ICosavyakhya, p. 578: esa In Bliagaw ■
Brali ,i hiii, ike no) < nd that th rm lira laliliui 'identified with Brahma' i pi b J
sometimes to Buddha himself (Dlgha, III, p. 84; Majjhima, I, p. 1 1 1 ; III, p. 193, 224; Samyutta, IV, p. 94: Ahguttara, V,
p. 226; Tchong a han, T 26, k. 34, p. 645b24), sometimes to the arhats (Samyutta, III, p. 83; Ahguttara, II, p. 206). -
According to Buddhaghosa, the word brahma is used here in the sense ol I hi i I: but th phnahons of
he Bodh. bhumi. i ire subtler / ipaya \ ralini
ity iterates
' Undoubtedly the Mpps is referring here to the theory of nirmita explained in the Karanaprajhapti, which is one of the
seven books of the Abhidharma: Che cho louen, T 1538, k. 6, p. 526a: "Why arc beings created (nirmita) by the Nirmatr,
i.e., the Buddha Bhagavat, of fine color, handsome, pleasant to see, their body adorned with the thirty-two marks of the
Great Vlan, silent while the Buddha speaks and speak when the Buddha is silent; whereas the beings created by the
sravakas, of line color, handsome, head shaved, clothed in robes and having (he marks of (be sramana, speak when the She
sravakas speak and are silent when the sravakas are silent? - The Buddha Bhagavat dwells always in samadhi and has
mastery of mind (cetovasita); he enters into samadhi and comes out quickly and with no difficulty; he never abandons the
object (alamhana) ol' his mind. This is not the case for the sravakas. on the contrary, the Bhagavat is omniscient
(sarvajita): he has obtained mastery of knowledge (jndna) and mind (citta), and he has reached the other shore
i i i I In i n tin I in teatcd by the Buddha... are silent when he spc ll pi il hen In i if in , hen i
hi ii in reated i' I peak w! n th - J p l! ind i if in In n tin i i ' i in ilcnl
This text shold be compared to a cam n i in i Ii b lsion of which is in DTgha, II, p. 212:
Ekasmini hliasamanasmirii sahhe hliasanti nimmita-
ekasnim tunhim i in ;ahh< 'iiluhhavantite//
and the Sanskrit version in Madh. vrtti, p. 331, and Divyavadana, p. 166:
Ekasya bhdsamanasya sarva hliasanti nirmitah/
ekasya tusnimblu tas\ ye tu iiiinhliavati ten
"When i i i! ii Ih ii n ill ii i ii bci peal icn one l m n ii in ill remain silent."
Answer. - What has been said there holds for the creations (nirmana) of the heretics (tirthika) and
sravakas, but the immense power of concentration {apramdnasamddhibala) inherent in the creations of the
Buddha is inconceivable (acintya). Thus, when the Buddha speaks, the innumerable thousands of
prabhedhakoti of apparitional Buddhas speak at the same time as him. - Moreover, the apparitional
creations of the tirthikas and the sravakas are unable in their turn to create [other] apparitional creations,
whereas those of the Buddha Bhagavat can create them in turn. - Moreover, after their death, the tirthikas
and sravakas cannot make the Active beings [that they have created] last (adhitisthanti), * * whereas the
Buddha, after his own parinirvana, can make the apparitional being [that he has created] persist as if it were
no different from the Buddha himself. ' ^ - Finally, what the Abhidharma says, that there cannot be two
minds at the same moment, holds true also for the Buddha. At the moment when the emanated being
speaks, he is without thought; but when the Buddha thinks about his emanationed creations and wants them
to speak, then they all begin to speak.
Question. - The Buddha now wants to preach the Prajnaparamita; why does he have the emanated Buddha
preach the six paramitas?
[116 b] Answer. - The six paramitas and the Prajnaparamita are identical and not different. Without
prajnaparamita, the [first] five paramitas would not be called 'paramita'. Without the prajnaparamita, the
virtue of generosity (ddnapdramita) would be classed among the perishable dharmas (ksayadharma) of the
world or would lead to the parinirvana of the arhats and pratyekabuddhas: it is when it is joined with
prajnaparamita that it is called paramita and leads to Buddahood. This is why the prajnaparamita and the
six paramitas are identical and not different.
There are two kinds of prajnaparamita, that which is adorned (alamkrtd) and that which is not adorned. It is
like a person who takes coral (pravdda, vidrumd) and adorns their body with it, and a person who does not
have coral and does not adorn themselves with it. Or also, when the king comes accompanied by his
retinue (parivara), we say: "The king is coming"; when he does not have a retinue, he is said to be
"solitary". This is the way it is in universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges in the east and in the
ten directions.
This holds for all sravaka creations, but not for those of the Buddha for, says the Kosa, VII, p. 118, "the latter has perfect
mastery of concentration: at will, the magical beings speak one after the oilier: they question and the Buddha responds;
the Buddha questions and they respond." This is also the opinion of the Divyavadana, p. 166, if one applies the
corrections proposed by L. de La Vallee Poussin in Kosa, VII, p. 118, n. 3: yam khal
prasnam prcchati. nirmito vyakaroti.
I [Lamotte] am not sure that the Mpps has completely understood its sources: according to it, "when the Buddha speaks,
the innumerable thousands of prabhedhakoti of apparitional Buddhas speak at the same lime as him."
'*■*■ For this sp( ialmi inin il , i to m die last or endure', see Kosa, VII, p. 119, n. 2.
'12 it i s thus that, after thcii parinirvana, the Buddhas I'rabhutaratna and Susanta left behind an apparitional Buddha, in a
way their 'double', in order to convert beings. The sravakas are unable to prolong themselves thus after then death, but
they can use a certain ad) hai thu K i yapa, the Buddha's disciple, caused his skeleton to last until the coming of
Maitreya (Kosa, VII, p. 120).
Question. - If the Buddha has miraculous power (rddhibala) such that innumerable thousands of
prabhedakoti of fictve Buddhas (nirmanabuddha) go in the ten directions to preach the six paramitas and
save the entire world, all beings will find salvation and there would be nobody else [to save] !
Answer. - Three obstacles (avarana) [oppose universal salvation]: i) beings plunged in the three bad
destinies (durgati) cannot understand [the teaching of the Buddhas]; ii) and Hi) gods and humans who are
too young, too old or too sick, as well as the non-perceptive gods (asamjnideva) of the formless realm
(arupya) cannot hear or understand [the teaching of the Buddhas].
Question.- Why cannot all those who hear and understand [this teaching] find the Path?
Answer. - They do not all find the path. Why? Because of their fetters (samyojana) and the obstacles
[consituted by] actions (karmdvarana). People whose fetters are heavy have a mind obsessed with fetters;
this is why they do not all find the Path.
Question. - Now that the Buddhas of the ten directions and the apparitional Buddhas whom they have
delegated preach the six paramitas, why do we, who are free of the three obstacles (avarana), not hear
them?
Answer. - Actually, beings are living in a bad age and enter into the three obstacles; they are living in an
epoch after the Buddha. The retribution of evil actions (karmdvarana) consisting of the errors and sins of
the world or the obstacle constituted by heavy fetters (stulasamyojanavarana) has plunged beings into an
epoch after the Buddha, and many people are chained (avrta) by heavy fetters; sometimes their desire
(raga) is small but their hatred (dvesa) is considerable; sometimes their hatred is small but their desire is
considerable; sometimes their desire is small but their delusion (moha) is considerable; sometimes their
delusion is small but their hatred is considerable. Thus there is mutual interchange in the order of
importance [amongst the fetters]. As a result of the obstacle consisting of the fetters (samyojanavarana),
people do not hear or do not understand the apparitional Buddhas who are preaching the Dharma and do
not see the rays of the Buddha. How then would they find the Path? Thus, when the sun (siirya) rises
(udati), blind people (andhapurusa) who do not see it claim that the world has no sun or moon
(suryacandramas); is that the fault of the sun? [116c] When thunder and lightning (meghavidyui) shake the
earth, deaf people (badhira) do not hear it; is that the fault of the sound (sabda)! Actually, the Buddhas of
the ten directions are always preaching the Dharma and always delegating the apparitional Buddhas to
preach the six paramitas in universes of the ten directions, but those who are affected by the blindness or
deafness of evil actions do not hear the sound of the Dharma. Therefore they are not all in a position to
hear and to see. Although the Arya (here, the Buddha) has great loving-kindness (mahamaitricitta), he
cannot cause everyone to see and hear. But when peoples' sins (dpatti) are almost destroyed and their
merits (punya) are on the rise, then they succeed in seeing the Buddha and hearing the Dharma.
ACTV
Sutra: Then the Bhagavat, on the same lion-seat, entered into the concentration called Lion's Play and, by
the action of his [miraculous] superknowledge, shook the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu which trembled
in si I (Atlui kl igavdms tasnii niliasi uih simln viknditam ndma
samdclhim scimdpeclc. tathdriipam cu rdclliyabhisamskdram abhisamskaroti sma yathdyam
trisdliasraiiuihdsdhasrolokadhdtulj sadvikdram akampata).
Sdstra: Question. - Why is this samadhi called Lion's Play (simhaviknditaj!
Answer. - 7) Just as the lion (simha) who has taken a gazelle (mrga) plays with it as a master (aisvaryena
krfdati),'i3 so the Buddha, having entered this samadhi, can upset the world in every way and thus make it
shake in six different ways.
2) Moreover, [sometimes] the lion plays, and when he plays, all the animals are reassured; in the same way,
when the Buddha enters this samadhi, he shakes the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu in such a way that
beings in the three evil destinies (durgati) simultaneously attain cessation (nirvrtti) and all will reach
salvation (yogaksema).
3) Finally, the Buddha is called the man-lion (purusasimha) and the samadhi of the Lion's Play is the
samadhi of the Buddha's Play. When he enters this samadhi, he causes the great earth (mahdprthivT) to
shake in six different ways and all beings deep in the hells (niraya) and the two unfortunate destinies
(durgati) all receive deliverance (vimoksa) and are reborn amongst the gods. Such is his 'Play'.
Question. - Why does the Buddha enter this samadhi?
Answer. - To shake the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, to take beings out of the three unfortunate
destinies (durgati) and bring them to the threefold Path (mdrgatraya).
Moreover, by means of three kinds of samadhi, the Buddha has already shown his Buddha body but there
are people whose faith (sraddhacitta) is not profound (gambhira). And so the Buddha [now] shakes the
great earth so that these beings, knowing the immensity of the miraculous power (rddhibala) of the Buddha
who shakes external objects, [may be filled] with pure faith (sraddhd.visudd.hi) and joyful thoughts
(cittamudita) and will all escape from suffering.
Question. - But the arhats and devas also can shake the earth. Why speak only about the miraculous power
of the Buddha here?
Answer. - The arhats and devas are unable to shake it at its base; only the Buddha can make it tremble in
six different ways.
Question. - Why does the Buddha shake the trisahasramahasmahasralokadhatu?
Answer. - So that all beings know that everything is empty (sunya) and transitory (anitya). There are
people who claim that the great earth (mahdprthivT), the sun and the moon (suryacandramas), Sumeru and
the great ocean (mahasamudra) are all eternal (nitya). This is why the Bhagavat shakes the earth six times
and gives the reason (hetupratyaya) for it: Beings will know that it is not eternal.
[117a] And just as a man who wants to soil his garment (vastra) first walks into the dust (rajas), so the
Buddha first shows his miraculous power to the beings of the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu; then, when
' in i hi mskril cxpi ion < nl designate the lion.
their minds are softened (mrduka, snigdha), he preaches the Dharma to them. This is why he shakes the
earth in six ways.
Question. - What are the six ways?
Sutra: 1) The east rises up and the west sinks (pw vd dig unnamati pascimd dig avanamati); 2) the west
i ii, u i i i i in i ( ; i iti); 3) the south rises up and the
north sinks down (daksind dig unnamati uttara dig avanamati); 4) the north rises up and the south subsides
(uttara dig unnamati daksind dig avanamati); 5) the edges rise up and the center sinks (anta unnamati
madhye 'vanamati); 6) the center rises and the edges sink (madhya unnamati ante 'vanamati).^
Sdstra: What are these six tremblings of the earth (bhumicala)?
Answer. - The trembling of the earth is lesser (avara), medium (madhya) and greater (agra). In the lesser
trembling of the earth, there are two movements: the east rises and the west sinks; or else the south rises
and the north sinks; or else the edges [rise] and the center [sinks]. In the medium trembling, there are four
movements: in the east, in the west, in the south and in the north; or again in the east, the west, the edges
and the center; or again in the south, the north, the edges and the center. In the greater trembling, all six
movements appear.
There are all kinds of causes for a greater trembling of the earth. Thus the Buddha said to Ananda: "There
are eight causes and eight conditions for a great trembling of the earth (astdv ime Ananda ketavo 'stau
pratyaya mahaiah prt/iirFccilcisyci)", etc. ■'' ' : '
714 Cf. Mahavyutpatti no. 3019-3030; Lalitavistara, p. 52, 411.
' ^ The eight causes are the following: The earth trembles (1) when the waters on which it rests are stirred by the wind;
(2) when a being endowed with supernatural power has come to the point of visualizing the earth as limited and the water
as unlimited; (3) when a bodhisattva descends into his mother's womb and leaves it at birth; (4) when a Tathagata
succeeds to the state of Buddha, (5 - 8) turns the wheel of Dharma, rejects the remainder of his life, enters into nirvana.
These eight causes are listed in the following texts: Pali sources: DTgha, II, p. 107-109; Anguttara, IV, p. 312-313. -
Sanskrit sources: Divyavadana, p. 204-206. - Chinese sources: Versions of the Mahaparinirvanasutra (T 1, k. 2, p. 15c-
16a; T 5, k. 1, p. 165a-b; T 6, k. 1, p. 180c; T 7, k. 1, p. 191c-192a); Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 36, p. 753c-754a.
Some sources have only three causes, namely, (he first two and the last of the preceding list: Tchong a han, T 26, k. 9, p.
377b-478a; Ken pen chouo... tsa che, T 1451, k. 36, p. 389a. Some of the texts have been translated and compared by
I'rzyluski, Lc I' rvti ici Buddha, p. 63-92.
the Lalitavistara points oul that the tremblings of the earth were produced at the main events of the Buddha's life: at
conception (p. 52), at his birth (p. 85), at the moment of enlightenment (p. 352) and at his first sermon (p. 411). -
Corresponding passages in the translation of Foucaux, p. 51, 79, 285, 342.
Moreover, some talk about four kinds of trembling of the earth: trembling of fire (agnicala), trembling of
the dragon (nagacala), trembling of the golden garuda (garudacala), trembling of the king of the gods
(devendracala).
The moon revolves [around the earth] in 28 days.
I. If the moon enters one of the six following constellations (naksatra): 1 ""
1. Mao (Kritika, Smin-drug): Tauri (Pleiades),
2. Tcluing (Purvaphalgunl, Gre): Leonis
3. Ti (Visakha, Sa-ga): Librae,
4. Leou (Asvinl, Tha-skar): Arietis,
5. Che (Purvabhadrapada, Khrums-stod): Pegasi,
6. Wei (BharnI, Bra-ne): Arietos,
then at that moment, the earth trembles as if it would collapse, this shaking extends up to the god of fire
(Agni). Then there is no more rain, the rivers dry up, the year is bad for grain, the emperor {Tien tseu) is
cruel and the great ministers are evil.
II. If the moon enters one of the following six constellations:
1. Lieou (Aslesa, Skag): Hydrae
2. Wei (Mula, Snrubs): Scorpionis
3. Ki (Purvashadha, Chu-stod): Sagittarii,
4. Pi (Uttarabhadrapada, Khrums-smad), Pegsi, Andromedae,
5. K'ouei (Revati, Nam-gru): Piscium.,
6. Wei (Dhanistha, Mon-gru): Delphini,
' 1" The Mpps lists 27 constellations or lunar mansions of the zodiac, divided here into three groups of six and one group
of nine. Ncxl to (he Chinese term arc (he Sanskrit and Tibetan translations (according lo the .Ylahavyutpatti, no. 3187-
32 14) and the modern equivalent.
The series of 27 or 28 naksatra has already appealed in the Vedic literature and has passed from there into the
Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain texts.
Ancient Brahmanical sources: Atharvav., XIX, 7, 1 seq; 8,2 scq: ICathaka-Samh., XXXIX, 13; Maitrayam-Samh. II, 13,
20; Taittitlya-Samh. IV, 4, 10, seq; Taittitlyabr. I, 5,1; Tattirlyabr. Ill, 4, 1 seq. - Synoptic table in Kith I / >.sin >•
der Inder, p. 36.
Recent Brahmanical sources: Naksatrakalpa, etc., in Kirfel, o.c, p. 138-139.
Buddhist sources, in Sanskrit: Mahavastu, III, p. 305, 1. 20-21; p. 306, 1. 21; p. 308, 1. 2-3, p. 309, 1. 2-3; Lalitavistara, p.
389; Mahavyutpatti, no. 3187-3214; - in Pali: AbhidhanappadTpika, ed. W. Subhuti, Colombo, 1883, p. 58-69 (list in Rhys
Davids-Stede, s.v. nakkhatta); - in Chinese, in a whole series of texts yet poorly explored.
then at that moment the earth trembles as if it would collapse and this trembling extends as far as the
Nagas. Then there is no more rain, the rivers dry up, the year is bad for grain, the emperor is cruel and the
great ministers are unjust.
III. If the moon enters one of the following six constellations,
1. Chen (Ardra, Lag): Orionis,
2. Kouei (Pusya, Rgyal): Cancri,
3. Sing (Magha, Mchu): Leonis,
4. Tchen (Hasta, Me-b€i): Corvi
5. K'ang (Svati, Sa-ri): Bootis,
6. Yi (Uttaraphalgunl, Dbo): Leonis,
then at that moment the earth trembles as if it would collapse, this trembling extends as far as the Garuda.
Then there is no more rain, the rivers dry up, the year is bad for grain, the emperor is cruel and the great
ministers are unjust.
IV. If the moon enters one of the following nine constellations:
1. Sin (Jyestha, Snron): Scorpionis
2. Kio (Citra, Nag-pa): Virginis,
3. Fang (Anuradha, Lha-mtshams): Scorpionis
4. Niu (Abhijit, Byi-b€in): Lyrae,
5. Hiu (Satabhisa, Mon-gre): Aquarii.
6. Tsing (Punarvasu, Nabs-so): Geminorum,
7. Pi (Rohinl, Sanr-ma): Tauri,
8. Tsouei (Mrgasiras, Mgo): Orionis,
9. Teou (Uttarasadha, Chu-smad): Sagittarii, 717
then at that moment the earth trembles as if it would collapse and this trembling extends as far as
Devendra. Then peace (yogaksema) is plentiful, rain favors the growth of the five grains, the emperor is
kind (siva), the great ministers are virtuous and everyone is peaceful.
Moreover, among the causes of the trembling of the earth, some are small and others are great. There are
some that shake one JambudvTpa, others one caturdvlpaka, one sahasralokadhatu, one dvisahasralokadhatu
or one trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu,
1 | I I i! n Due to the I f the < ilphabct on m omputcr, 1 liable to reproduce the Greek letters
dclincalimr the individual constellations in each of the above three lists.]
The small trembling is due to a small cause: when an individual of quality is born or dies, there is a
trembling of the local earth; this is the small trembling. The [117b] great trembling is due to a great cause:
when the Buddha is born, reaches Buddhahood and is about to enter nirvana, the entire
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu shakes completely; this is the great trembling. Here the Buddha, who
wants to gather together all beings, causes the earth to tremble in six ways.
Moreover, in the Prajnmaparamita, the Buddha prophecies to the bodhisattvas that they will be Buddhas.
The Buddha is the great leader (mahddhipati) of heaven and earth. [On learning of the accession of the
future Buddhas], the goddess of the earth (prthividevata) is filled with joy (mudita) [and says to herself]: "I
have found a leader." This is why the earth trembles. In the same way, when the leader of a country sets up
a minister (amatya), the people congratulate him; everyone shouts "Hurray!" and they sing and dance.
Finally, as a result of the merits (punya) of the beings of the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, there are
rivers, trees and all kinds of things on this earth, but beings are ignorant of their transitory nature
(anityata). This is why the Buddha, by the power of his merit and his wisdom, shakes this universe so that
the beings know the futility of it: everything will be destroyed (nirvrta) and will return to nothingness
(anityata).
Sutra: The earth became soft and gentle so that all beings rejoiced (prthivi mrduka snigdha
sarvasattvasukhajanany abhui).
Sastra: Question. - How could a trembling of the earth (prthivicala) inspire beings to a joyful mind?
Answer. - Mind (citta) stands in support behind the body (kdya); thus when the body is at ease, the mind is
joyful. And so (readyoM inplace oiyue tcho), in the person who has fasted (uposadhika) 1 "° has a joyful
mind on returning to his normal routine. At present in the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, beings with
various faults have a coarse (audarika) mind deprived of wholesome stimuli; this is why the Buddha
shakes the great earth so that soft and gentle minds (mrduka-snigdhacitta) can develop (vrddhi).
Thus, when the gods enter the Houan lo yuan (Nandanavana) garden of the king of the Trayastrimsa gods,
their minds become soft and gentle, they are joyous, content and no gross minds (sthulacitta) arise in them.
When the asuras come with their armies, they feel no aggressive attitudes (vigrahacitta). But it happens
that Che t'ip'o na min (Sakro devanam indrah), at the head of an army of gods, enters the Parusyavana and,
because this garden, where the trees, flowers and fruits have an unpleasant smell, is coarse (parusa), the
army of gods [feel] aggressive thoughts arising in themselves. '*" It is the same for the Buddha: Since this
'1° In Sanskrit, the person who fasts is said to be uposadhika (Mahavastu, ii, p. 9). in Pali, aposathika ( Vinaya, I, p. 58;
IV, 75, 78).
'!" The Trayastrimsa gods with Sakra as king live in the city of Sudarsana on the summit of Mount Meru. This city has
four parks: Caitraratha, Parusya, Misra and Nandana (Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 20, p. 132b; Mahavastu, I, p. 32;
great earth is coarse and harsh, he transforms {parindmayati) it, softens it and causes all beings to have
joyous dispositions.
Thus, when certain magical herbs (mantausadhi) are burned under people's noses, violent feelings
(dghdtacitta) are aroused in them and they fight. on the other hand, there is a certain magical herb which
inspires joy (muditd), happiness (nanadana), respect (satkdra) and harmony (samara) in people. If a
simple magical herb has such power, what can be said [of the Buddha] who makes the ground of the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu soft and gentle?
Sutra: In this trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, [beings] in the hell realms (niraya), in the preta realm, the
animal realm (tiryagoni) and the eight difficult (aksana) conditions were immeditately liberated (vimukta)
and reborn among the gods dwelling at the Caturmaharajika stage to the Paranirmitavasavartin stage. '™
Divyavadana, p. 2! 9: Lokaprajiiapti in Lav., Cosmologic. p. 304-305; Jataka. VI, p. 278: K.osa, 111, p. 161; P'i p'o cha, T
1545, K. 133, p. 692a).
Ih i in i mention Ihi I n li nl infiucn >fth< na\ i>iJ die malcfi cut influ n i ilv / misyavana. -
Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 20, p. 132b: "Why is it called I'arusyavana'! Because when one enters it, one's thoughts (chen t'i)
become harsh (parusd)... Why is it called Nanadanavana? Because when one enters it, one is happy and joyful." - Jataka
V, p. 158 Net tliataya Nai i ' u - P'i p'o cha T 1545, k. 133, p.
692a: "In the I'arusyavana, when the gods want to go to war, armor and weapons appear according to their needs... In the
Nanadanavana, all kinds of marvels and joys are gathered and they go from one to another withoul getting tired." -
Samyutta, I, p. 5 (cf. Tsa a han, T 99, 1. 22, p. 153c) says that those who have not seen the Nandana do not know
happiness ( Va md Vhguttara, III, p. 40 (cf. Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 24,
p. 681a) speaks of those who walk in the Nandana, joyous, happy and content among the five sense pl< isui i tatti
nandanti ramanti inodare samappita kamagunehi pancahi).
Originally the abode of the Trayastrimsa, with all its wonders, was shared with the asuras, but when Magha was born as
Sakra among the Trayastrimsa gods, the company of the asuras displeased him and, having previously made them drunk,
h i idled them from hi palao ih livi ill il In li h hid u ml d I the n i up mi kumbhanda yaksa md
the Caturmaharajika gods. Cf. Jataka. I, p. 201 seq; Dhammapadattha, I, p. 272 seq (tr. Burlingamc, Legends, I, p. 319). It
is undoubtedly wrong that the Vlpps claims that the asuras still had access to the Nandanavana.
720 n src Kumarajiva abridges the texl of the Panca\ imsati and leaps over an important phrase. In reality, it is not only
.in., lie ' i 'i ih 1 imadhatu (from tin " iturmal irajil to tin ! iiniiiiu.i n i i irtin I that th i I in laki rebirth
but also especial!} among humans. This is expressed by the continuation of the sutra given below, p. 118a, where it is
said that these gods and these men, remembering their former existence, go to the Buddha. Here is the text of the
I'ancav imsati, p. 8. where rebirth among humans is explicitly mentioned:
Atlia i i i ' id i agyonayo .... devdndm
sabhdgatdydm uppannas eahlmvan.
"Then at that very moment, at that minute, at that hour, the hells, the animal destinies and the realms of the dead who
were in this trichiliomcgacosm were broken open and emptied and all the difficult conditions {aksana) disappeared and
the beings who had fallen into the hells, the animal realm and the realm of Yama, all experienced such great joy thai they
Sastra: Having entered into the Lion's Play samadhi, if the Buddha causes the damned, the pretas, the
animals and the eight other difficult conditions '^ no be liberated and reborn in the abodes of the
Caturmaharajika gods up to the Paranirmitavasavartin gods, why is it still necessary to acquire merit
(punya) and practice the good (kusala) in order to obtain the fruit of retribution {yipakaphaldfl
Answer. - We have said that beings of great merit have seen the Buddha's rays and have thus found
salvation; those of profound faults and stains understand it [only] when the earth trembles. When the rising
sun lights up a lotus pool (padmahrada), the ripe lotuses open at once while the young buds do not;
similarly, when the Buddha emits his rays (rasmi), beings with ripe merit (paripakvapunya) and sharp
knowledge (tiksnajndna) attain liberation (yimoksa) at once, whereas those who do not have ripe merit or
keen knowledge do not. The Buddha has great loving-kindne (mi land mpa ion (karund); he saves
everyone alike (samam), without feeling aversion (pratigha) or affection (annunaya) for anyone. When a
fruit tree is shaken (dhunoti), the ripe fruits (paripakvaphala) fall first. Apply that to the Buddha: the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu is like the fruit tree; it is the Buddha who shakes it; the ripe fruits [that
fall] are the beings who are saved; the green fruits [that remain attached to the tree] are the beings who are
not saved.
Question. - Why are the beings who have had this good mind (kusalacitta) reborn [only] among the gods
of the desire realm (kamadhdtu) and not in the form realm (rupadhdtu) or the formless realm
(drupyadhdtu)?
Answer. - In order to save beings, the Buddha leads them to realize the Path (mdrgasa.ksdtka.ra). But in the
formless realm (ariipyaclhdtu) where [beings] have no bodies (kdya), it is not possible to preach the
Dharma to them; in the form realm (rupadhdtu) where all feelings of displeasure (nil vedacitta) are absent,
it is difficult to find the Path because where the pleasure of dhyana is plentiful, the mind is dulled (mrdu).
Furthermore, when the Buddha makes the ground of the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu soft and pliable
by shaking the universe by means of his \rddhy] -abhijnd, beings full of faith (prasddita) are joyful
(pramuditd) and consequently are reborn among the gods of the desire realm (kamadhdtu). Since they are
not practicing the four dhyanas [of the form realm] or the four empty attainments (sunyasamdpatti) [of the
were reborn among humans or among the Caturmaharajika, Trayastrimsa, Yama, Tusita, Nirmanarati or
Paranirmitavasavartin gods."
Aside from a few unimportant differences, the corresponding text of the Satasahasrika, p. 13-14, is the same.
' 21 The hell, animal and preta destinies constitute the three bad destinies (durgati); these are well known and it is not
u i! k il i'iii ii i ii In re. 1 intrast tin / li i l> 111 < liiiv < li m lalioi rend i du , i I ondi ion isl
for some explanation. There aie i In i >ci ionall ihim I a njtr. bclongin i >ik i ill I id «l hum i lamn J
(naraka). animal (tiryugoni) or preta; being a human, one is lacking an organ (iii(lriyavaikalya). is plunged into wrong
views i 'i ma), is living bi ioie oi aftei the Buddha (tatln aiiaiu amitj 'ah), or living in a boidei region
(pratyanatajanapada); if one is a god, belonging to the class of the long-lived gods (dirghdyuso devah).
These eight aksana (in Pali, akkhana) are listed and defined in Digha, III, p. 263, 265, 287; Ahguttara, IV, p. 225-227;
Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 124), k. 29, p. 613; Tseng yi a han, Y 125, k. 36, p. 747; Mahavyutpatti, np. 2299-2306;
I ih inn i im \ A< i, chap. 134. - Allusion is made to them in Mahavastu, I, p. 416 (note), II, p. 338, 363; Lalitavistara, p.
412 (astdkhanavarjind); Saddharmapundarlka, p. 96, 163, 434, 451; Avadanasataka, I, p. 291, 332.
formless realm], they cannot be reborn in the form realm (rupadhatu) or the formless realms
{drupyadhdtu).
Question. - The five aggregates (skandhd) [making up the individual] are transitory (anitya), empty (siinya)
and non-substantial (andtmaka); then how can one be reborn among the gods or men? Who is reborn?
Answer. - This point has already been fully discussed in the chapter on the bodhisattva. We shall limit
ourselves here to a brief answer. You say that the five skandhas are transitory, empty and non-substantial,
but according to the Prajnaparamita, the five skandhas are neither eternal nor transitory, neither empty nor
non-empty, neither substantial nor non-substantial. Like the heretics (tirthika), you are looking for a real
atman, but that is non-existent (anupalabdha); it is only a designation (prajnaptipat). It exists as a result of
diverse causes and conditions {ndndhetupratyayasdmagri), but only nominally and conventionally
(ndmasamketa). Thus when a magician (mdydkdra) kills himself, the spectators see him dead, and when a
trick resuscitates him, the spectators see him alive; but his life and his death have only nominal existence
(prajnaptisat) and are not real (dravyasai). According to ordinary systems (lokadharma), samsara really
does exist; but according to the system of the true nature (hhiitalaksanadhai-ma) there is no samsara,
transmigration.
Furthermore, if there were a transmigrating beint*. (samsdrin), there would be transmigration, samsara;
without a samsarin, there is no samsara. Why? Because the Asamsarin has destroyed birth by means of his
great wisdom
Thus some stanzas say:
Although the Buddha dharmas are empty (sunya)
They are not, however, reduced to nothingness (iicchinnu).
[118 a] Existent, but non-eternal
Actions are not lost.
Dharmas are like the trunk of a banana tree (kadali):
All are the result of mind.
If one knows the non-reality of the dharmas
This mind, in its turn, is empty.
The person who thinks about emptiness
Is not a practitioner of the Path.
Dharmas do not arise and they do not perish:
Being momentary (ksanika), they lose their nature.
The person who thinks falls into Mara's net,
The person who does not think finds escape (nihsarana).
Mental discursiveness is not the Path,
Non-discursiveness is the seal of the Dharma (dharmamudra).
Sutra: Then remembering their former existences (purvajanmany anusmrtya), these gods and men
(devamanusya) experienced great joy (prdmodyd). They went to the Buddha and, having bowed down to
the Buddha's feet (bhagavatah pddan sirobhir abhivandya), they stood to one side.
Sastra.- Question. - When the gods are reborn, they know three things: they know where they have come
from (kutas cyutdh), they know where they are born (kutropapannah) and they know by virtue of what
previous merit {kena purvakrtapunyend)?^ But when men are reborn, they are unaware of these three
things. [How can it be said here] that they rememeber their previous existences?
Answer. - 7) It is not a fixed rule (niyama) for men (manusyagati): some remeber, some do not
remember.'23
2) Furthermore, it is thanks to the miraculous power (rddhibala) of the Buddha that [those in question
here] remember their previous existences.
Question. - The gods, who possess the five superknowledges (abhijnd) and remember their previous lives,
are able to go to the Buddha; but supposing that they received [the gift] of the miraculous power of the
Buddha and remembered their previous lives, how could men go to the Buddha?
Answer. - Some of them, by birth (janman) or by retribution (vipaka), possess the superknowledges
(abhijnd)124, as for example, the noble cakravartin kings; the others borrow the Buddha's miraculous
power [in order to go to him].
Question. - Humans are carried in the womb for ten months, suckled for three years and fed for ten years;
only after that can they support themselves. It is said, by the power (anubhdva) of the Buddha, beings in
the three bad destinies (durgati) and the eight difficult conditions (aksana), all obtain deliverance (vimukti),
' 22 Cf. Avadanasataka, I, p. 292: dhai n , i i , i ikan\ ay cyutah km > kena
karmaneti K.o Ji i > I it i > < / / / m 11,11 irina
'■ ii It is not rare thai Indian newspapers report the case of young children who remember their immediately preceding
lifetime.
'^ Notably the rddhyabala of moving rapidly from one place to another.
are reborn among gods or humans, and go to the Buddha. It may be so for the gods but it is impossible for
humans; indeed, how could they walk [as soon as they are born]?
Answer. - In the five destinies (gad), living conditions differ:
1) Gods and hell beings (naraka) are all apparitional beings (upapdduka).
2) Pretas are of two kinds, born from a placenta (jarayuja) or apparitional (upapdduka).
3) Men (manusya) and animals (tiryagyoni) are of four kinds: born from an egg (andaja), born from
exudation (samsvedaja), apparitional ( upapdduka) or born from a placenta (jarayuja). 125
a) Born from an egg, e.g., the thirty-two sons of P'i did k'ia mi k'ie lo mou (Visakha Mrgaramata):
Visakha, their mother, gave birth to thirty-two eggs which on breaking open, released thirty-two boys who
all were strong men;726 the oldest of them was Mrgara. Visakha obtained the fruit of the threefold Path.
b) Born of exudation, for example, Yen lo p'o li (AmrapalT), chief courtesan (vesydgra) who gave birth to a
cakravartin king, etc. 727
c) Apparitional beings: thus, when the Buddha was traveling with the four assemblies, in the group of nuns
there was a bhiksum named A lo p'o (Aramavasa) who appeared miraculously on this earth. 728 Moreover,
the people born at the beginning of the cosmic peiod (prdthamakalpika) were all apparitional beings.
d) Born from a placenta: this is the usual birth for humans.
[118 b] People of apparitional birth (upapdduka, as an emanation), being full-grown at birth, are able to go
to the Buddha. There are people who have obtained the abhijnas as reward (vipaka) and who are able to go
to the Buddha [by themselves]; others also are able to go to the Buddha because the latter lends them his
power of abhijna.
'■" These are the four "wombs' or yoni which are listed in Dlgha, III, p. 230; Majjhima, I, p. 73; Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 8,
p. 50c; Milinda, p. 146; Visuddhimagga, p. 552, 557 > •. 1 • m, itli .if 9 I o ilkistrati tin < four types of birth,
the ICaranaprajhapti in Tibetan (Lav., Cosmologie. p. 345- 346), Vibhasa (T 1545, k. 120, p. 626c-627a) and Kosa (111, p.
i li ithcrcd a Ion ri of cxampl the VI pps mentions the i cs of Visakh Ymrapali and Aramavasa
726 The thirty-two eggs of Visakha: Dulva, III, p. 126- 131 (Csoma-Feer, p. 173-174); Rockhill, Life, p. 71; Schiefher-
Ralston, Tibetan Tales, p. 125.
' 2 ' AmrapalT was born from the stem of a banana tree as is told at length in the Nai nin k'i yu yin yuan king, T 553 (tr.
Chavanncs, Comes. Ill, p. 325-329): Schicfnci'-Ralston. Tibetan Tales, p. 85. - Bui Amrapah is the mother of.hvaka, not
oi'a cakravartin king.
' 2 ° As her name indicates, this nun 'dweller in a hermitage' was born in a hermitage, her head shaven and clothed in
ochre robes
Sutra: In the universes of the ten directions, universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, the earth
shook similarly in six ways. The damned (naraka), the pretas, the animals (tiryak) and the other inhabitants
of the eight difficult conditions (aksana) were at once liberated (vimukta) and reborn among the gods of the
six classes.
Sastra: Question. - Beings, infinite (apramana) and innumberablc (asamkhyeya), form a considerable
number just in the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu; why does the Buddha also address himself to beings in
the universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges?
Answer. - The power of te Buddha (buddhabala) is immense (apramana): it is a trifle for him to save the
beings of the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu: this is why he addresses himself also [to the beings] of the
ten directions.
Question. - If, by his great power, the Buddha Sakyamuni saves the ten directions as a whole, why are
other Buddhas still needed [to save beings]?
Answer. - 7) Because beings are infinite (apramana) in number and do not all ripen (paripakva) at the
same time.
2) Furthermore, causes and conditions (hetupratyaya) vary for each being. Thus it is said in the system of
the sravakas: "In the Cho lifouyin yuan (' iri] him- i [an i) di tples become separated from Sariputra;729
if the Buddhas cannot save them, how could others do so?"
3) Furthermore, here it is a matter only of universes of the east equal in number to the sands of a single
Ganges; we are not speaking of universes as numerous as the sands of two, three, four, up to a thousand
prabhedakoti of Ganges.
4) Finally, universes (lokadhatu) are infinite (ananta) and unlimited (apramana) in number. If they were
finite and limited, the number of beings would be exhausted. This is why the Buddhas must save the
innumerable universes of the ten directions.
Sutra: Then, amongst the beings of the trisahasramahasahasralokadathu, those who were blind from birth
were able to see (jatyandhuh pasyanti sma), the deaf began to hear (badhirah srnavanti sma), the mute
began to speak (mukti hlitisanti sma), the insane became rational (itnmattah smrtim pratilahhante sma), the
distracted recovered their attentiveness (yiksiptacitta ekagracitta bhavanti sma), those who were naked
received clothing (nagnas civarani pratilahhante sma), those who were hungry and thirsty had their bowls
' 2 " This perhaps concerns the schism of Kausambi in which Sariputra had to intervene (cf. Vinaya, I, p. 354).
filled (jighatsitah piirnapcitni hhavanti sma), the sick recovered their health (rogasprsta vigataroga
hluivanti sma), the crippled regained their wholeness (hinendriydh paripurnendriyd bhavanti snui).HQ
Sastra: Beings are subject to hundreds of thousands of sufferings (duhkha); if the Buddha uses miraculous
power (rddhibala), why does he not liberate them from all of these sufferings?
Answer. - All sufferings are suppressed, but here only the most serious (sthula) ones are spoken of in brief.
Similarly, in order to designate all the fetters (samyojana), they are spoken of, as a whole, as the three
poisons (trivisa).
I. Question. - It would suffice to say that 'the blind' obtained their sight; why specify 'those blind from
birth'?
Answer. - Because in their previous existences, those born blind (purvajanmd) were great sinners. If great
sinners can thus recover their sight, what about minor sinners?
Question. - What grave sin (sthuldpatti) have they committed in their previous lives in order to be blind
from birth today?
Answer. - They have gouged out or torn out someone's eyes, or destroyed someone's correct view
(samyagdrsticaksus) by saying that sin (dpatti) and merit (punya) do not exist. After death, these people
fall into hell (niraya), then, [being reborn] in the form of humans, their sins make them blind from birth. -
Moreover, stealing lights or lamps (pradipa) from a srupa of the Buddha, arhat [118c] arhat or
pratyekabuddha, ruining the lamps in other fields of merit (punyaksetra) are also actions of previous lives
(purvajanmakarmari) that cause the loss of sight [in the course of a future lifetime].
But one may lose one's sight during the present lifetime (ihajanmd) as a result of sickness (vyddhi) or
because of being beaten (prahdra): those are actual causes.
only the Buddha is able to restore sight to the 96 eye-sicknesses that king Cho na kia lo (Jnanakara) could
not cure; first he gives them back their sight, then he makes them find the wisdom eye (prajnacaksus). It is
the same for the deaf who recover their hearing.
II. Question. - If there are those who are blind from birth, why does the sutra not speak of those who are
deaf from birth?
Answer. - Because those who are blind from birth are more numerous than those who are deaf from birth.
Question. - What are the causes of deafness?
Answer. - 7) Deafness has [the actions] of the previous life as cause. To reject or transgress the instructions
of one's teacher (acdryd) or one's father (pitr) and to rebel against them is a sin (dpatti) winch will result in
deafness. To cut off or tear out someone's ear, to ruin a gong (gandi), a bell (dhantd), a conch (sankha) or a
drum (dundubhi) of a stupa of the Buddha of the samgha of good men or of any field of merit
li{> Similar exposition in Paficavimsati, p. 9-10; Satasahasrika, p. IS- 19; Lalitav istara. p. 278-279; Suvarnaprabhasa, cd.
Nobel, p. 8-9; Mahavyutpatti, no. 6036-6309.
(punyaksetra) are also sins (apatti) which in turn lead to deafness. These various actions of a previous
lifetime (purvey anmakarmari) are the causes of deafness in a future lifetime.
2) In the present lifetime (ihajanma), one can lose one's hearing as a result of sickness (vyddhi), or being
beaten (prahdra), and other similar things: those are the actual causes.
III. Question. - The mute (mukd) cannot speak. What sins (apatti) have they committed in order to be
mute?
Answer. - 7) They have cut out someone's tongue or choked someone; they have made someone unable to
speak by means of an evil herb; hearing the instructions of their teacher (dedrya) or the orders of their
father, they have cut off their speech and not followed their advice; acting in bad ways, they did not believe
in sin or merit and opposed correct speech (samyagvac). Condemned to hell, when they are reborn in
human form, they are mute, unable to speak. Those are the various causes that make someone mute.
IV. Question. - [The sutra says] that the insane become rational (unmattah smrtim pratilabhante sma); why
is one insane?
Answer. - For having committed the following sins in the course of previous lifetimes: molesting someone
deep in dhyana, destroying the monastery of meditators (dhydyin), deceiving people by means of spells
(mantra) in order to inspire them to hatred, anger or sensual desires.
In the present lifetime (ihajanma) [insanity is caused by] the heaviness of the fetters (samyojanagurutd).
Thus the brahmin, who had lost his rice field (read tao t'ien, sasyaksetra, instead of fou t'ien) and whose
wife had died, had a fit of madness and fled completely naked. - The bhiksunl Tch'e cho k'ie kiao fan
(Krisaka gautaml), while she was still a lay-person (avadatavasana), lost her seven sons; the sadness made
her lose her reason and she became insane. 731 Extremely irritable people, unable to contain themselves,
become completely insane. Mad people (mudhd), by a sad mistake, cover their bodies with ashes
(bhasman), tear out their hair (kesa), go about naked and eat dung (purisd) in their madness. 732 After a
serious illness, a sickness of wind (vayuvyadhi) or a sickness of fire (tejovyadhi), people become insane.
Others are insane because they are possessed by evil demons or because they have stupidly drunk rain
'•' 1 The story of Thin Gautaml', in Pali, Kisagotaml, is especially well-known in the Pali sources: Therlgatha Comm., p.
174 seq (tr. Rh. D., Sisters, p. 106-108); Apadana, II, p. 564-567; Dhammapadattha, II, p. 270-275; III, p. 432 (tr.
Burlingame, Legends, II, p. 257-260: III, p. 165-166); Manoratha, I,p.378-381; Ralston-Schiefner, Tibetan Tales, p. 216-
226. See I. H. Thicsscn I le von Kisa rcskui, 1880. I lami 11 d in J ] m ill !i i I I hild in her
arms. She came to the Buddha who promised to brim* her child back to life if she brought him a mustard seed from a
house where nobody had died. She sought in vain for such a house until sin: realized that 'tin; living arc few and the dead
are many' and that the Buddha had wanted to teach Iter the universality of death. Comforted, she entered the monastic
order where she attained arhathood.
This nun is different from ICisagotami, a young girl of Kapilavastu, known aiso undci the name of .Ylrgi who praised the
future Buddha when he rctiirnd ti hi , ilaci Jil. ing ti luin ill famou lanza Sihutta iiuiia s, , iil d (nil
the mother; blessed truly the father, blessed truly the wife who has such a husband as that." Cf. Nidanakatha, p. 60;
.Ylahavastu, II, p. 157; Fo pen hing tsi king, T 190, k. 15, p. 724b; I chong liin mo iio ti king, T 191, k. 4, p. 944c; Ken pen
chouo... p'o seng che, T 1450, k. 3, p. 1 14b.
'■' 2 An allusion to the religious practices of the Nirgranthas.
water.733 This is how one loses one's reason, and all these individuals are called insane. But when they
succeed in seeing the Buddha, these madmen recover their reason.
V. Question. - [The sutra adds that] distracted people regain their attentiveness [119a] (viksipticitta
ekdgracittd bhavanti saw) but the insane (unmatta) are also distracted. Why is there this distinction?
Answer. - There are people who, without being insane, are often distracted. Attentiveness is like a monkey
(markata);134 when it is not fixed, there is distraction. Agitated and speedy, mind becomes attached
(abhinivisate) to a crowd of objects; then one loses one's mental power (cittabala ) and is unable to find the
Path.
Question. - What are the causes of distraction?
Answer. - The attenuation of the functioning of good thoughts (kusalacitta pravrtti), the pursuit of evil
(akusalanugama): these are [the causes] of distraction.
Furthermore, people do not consider (na samanupasyanti) the transitory nature (anitya) of things, or the
signs of death (marananimitta)735 or universal emptiness (lokasunya); they are attached to long life
(dirghayus), think only of their own business and are scattered in many ways: this is why they are
distracted.
Finally, they do not enjoy the inner joy (adhyatmika sukha) coming from the Buddhadharma; they seek the
occasions of pleasure outwardly and pursue the causes of pleasure; this is why they are distracted. But
when these distracted people come to see the Buddha, their attentiveness is fixed.
VI. Question. - There are two kinds of madmen {unmatta), those who are recognized as such and those
who, by a sad mistake, are naked without people considering them to be insane.
155 The Tsa p'i yu king, T 207 (no. 17), p. 526b, (tr. Chavannes, Contes, II, p. 31) tells that in a foreign kingdom evil
rains having fallen, all those who drank thai water became mad after seven days.
'-''* Canonical reference: Samyutta, II, p. 95 (Tsa a han, T 99, k. 12, p. 81cl5): 'In the same way that a ni in! i | i
1 1 1 in about in the toiest seizes one blanch then lets it go and seizes mother ( / i i i
guniliuti), so what is called 'mind' or 'consciousness', appears and disappears in the perpetual alternation of day and
735 See Kosa, III, p. 134-136.
It is said that in southern India {daksindpatha) there was a Dharma teacher {dharmdcdrya) Kao tso 736
'■^" Kao tso may not be a proper name; these characters mean 'he who sits on a high seat' and probably translate the
Sanskrit uccasane nisannah, which occurs in ihc Pali I'atimokkha. 69th sckluya (Vinaya, IV, p. 204): ihi nice asane
i ussJmz "I will not preach the Dharma while sitting on a seat
lower ihan a man who is sitting on a higher chair, unless he is sick" and in the San 1 m n i li tJin ! l itimok i " nd
uksa (L. Pinot, Lc i i Extracts of. I iv.-D 1913, p. 75; Mahavyutpatti, no. 8603;
Che song pi k'ieou po lo y'i mou tch'a kiai pen, T 1436, p 4 1 J i net isaunasya
dharmam desaayisydmah.
Therefore a kao-tso teacher is a teacher seated on a throne to teach.
We know that the famous translator Dharmaraksa who came from a family of Scythian origin established at Touen
Houang and who lived in the 3rd centruty, was the student of the Hindu Kao tso (Tchou Kao tso) whom he accompanied
into tin Western luntrii Hen i tin i n honorifii ml. ratln lli m pro) main
Wc should note that the Kao tso presented to us here by the Mpps is a native of southern India, thai he converted the king
and ensured his protection in an original w ay - by his actions rather than by words - and that he finally triumphed over the
heretics. These three points constitute the outline of Nagarjuna's biography ark!., if indications were not so slight, I
[Lamottc] could casih believe thai Kao tso is none other than Nagarjuna. Nagarjuna was also a native of southern India
(Andhra) ami was a friend of king Satavahana. Many sources, more or less dependent on one another, tell us how he was
converted; it was indeed in the manner of Kao tso: "When Nagarjuna came back from the nagas, the king of southern
India, full of wrong views, favored (lie tlrthikas and disputed the holy Dharma. In order to convert him, Nagarjuna
appeared before him with a red flag for seven consecutive years. The kiiv , i istonished md isked ho , i tin man
before him. Nagarjuna replied: "I am mniscicnt l i 1 1 in as staitled at these woids and said: "An
omniscient one is very rare; how can you prove that ' Na irjun i crcd I fill king wishes to test my sen. i > h
must pay attention to my words..." The king then asked him what the devas were doing at that moment: Nagarjuna told
him that thi d i n fi htin i linst th tsuras At that moment the king heard a sound as if someone were being
choked. Not bclick ing that this sound was coming from the devas, he said that that was no proof... Then at once a mass of
shields, spears and weapons fell from the sky. flic king then said: "Although these arc certainly weapons, how do you
know [that they come] from the devas fighting with the asuras'?"... Immediately, severed hands, feet, ears raid noses of the
asttias fell from the sky... The king bowed his head and was converted. Some brahmins who were on the palace terrace
cut their hair and took on the precepts (sila). from thai time on Nagarjuna spread Buddhism widely in southern India.
vanquished the tlrthikas and developed the Mahayana."
This story is drawn from a biography of Nagarjuna attributed, w rough . w ithout a doubt, to KumarajTva: the Long chou
p'ou sa rchouan, T 2047, p. 186a-b; it is repeated by later biographies (Fou fa tsang yin yuan ichouan, T 2058, k. 5, p.
318a-b; Fo tsou t'ong ki, T 2035, k. 5, p. 174c; Fo tsou li t'ong tsai, T 2036, k. 4, p. 503a-b) but its great antiquity is
attested by a note of ICumarajiva inserted in the Tchou wei mo kie king, T 1775, k. 2, p. 330, where the episode is
summarized.
The same sources tell also about a brahmin who, in discussion with Nagarjuna, produced a magic pool in the middle of
which was a lotus with a thousand petals, and how Nagarjuna astounded him by creating a white elephant with six tusks
that upset the pool.
In the victory of Kao tso over the tlrthikas as it is told here in the Mpps, wc sec perfect agreement w ith the biographies of
Nagarjuna written in the same spirii and with the same concerns. It would be rather tempting to identify Kao tso with
Nagarjuna. If the latter is really the author of the Mpps, he was thus transmitting to us an anecdote in his own life
who preached the five precepts. In the crowd there were many heretics (tirthika) who had come to listen,
and the king of the country made some objections: "If as you say, those who provide liquor (mrdvikd) or
who drink liquor were punished with madness, among our contemporaries mad people would be more
numerous than rational people. Now actually, mad men are rare and those of healthy mind are numerous.
How can that be?" At once the heretics applauded (sddhukdram dadati), saying: "This is a profound
(gambhira) objection. This Kao tso with the shaven head (munda) will not be able to answer it for the
king's knowledge is sharp (tiksnajnand)." Then the Dharma teacher, pointing his finger at the heretics,
spoke about something else. The king understood but the heretics said to him: "The king's objection was
profound; he has not answered. Ashamed of his ignorance, he just raises his finger and talks about
something else." The king said to the heretics: "The Dharma teacher Kao tso has answered with his finger
and that is all; he said nothing in order to spare you. By showing you his finger, he meant that you are the
madmen and that madmen are not rare. You coat your bodies with ashes (bhasman) and you have no
shame in going about naked; you fill human skulls (kapdla) with excrement (purisa) and you eat it; you
tear out your hair (kesa); you sleep on thorns (kantaka); you hang yourselves upside-down and you
asphyxiate yourselves; you go into the water in winter; you roast yourselves in the fire in summer. All
these practices are not the Path (mdrga), but signs of madness. According to your rules, selling meat
(mdmsavikraya) or selling salt (lavanavikrayd) are transgressions of the brahmin law; but in your temples,
you accept oxen as gifts, you resell them and you claim to observe your law. But the ox is meat! Is it not
wrong to deceive people thus? You claim that by going into the sacred rivers {nadi), all the stains of sins
(dpattimala) are wiped out, but there is no reason [119b] why such a bath consitutes a sin or a merit. What
wrong is there in selling meat or salt? You claim that a bath in holy rivers can wipe out sins, but if it wipes
out sins, it would also wipe out merits; what is there that is holy in these rivers? These practices have no
basis; attempting to justify them is madness. All these signs of madness are yours and it is to spare you that
the Dharma teacher has shown you his finger and said nothing."
That is what is called the madness of nudity.
Moreover, some poor people (daridrd) go about without clothes or their clothes are in tatters (read Ian liu,
120 nd 21, 120 and 1 1). It is by the power of the Buddha that they acquire clothing.
VII. [The sutra says] that the hungry will be satisfied and the thirsty quenched. Why are they hungry and
thirsty?
Answer. - As a result of scarcity of merits (punya). In previous existences (purvajanmd) there was no cause
(hetu ) and in the present existence {ilia I an ma) there is no condition (pratyaya) for hunger and thirst
Furthermore, people who, in their previous lifetimes, have stolen food from the Buddhas, the arhats, the
pratyekabuddhas, their relatives or their families, will be hungry and thirsty because of the gravity of this
fault even if they are living during the [golden] age of a Buddha.
Question. - The cause of it is retribution of actions (karmavipaka) which varies for each case. Some
people fufill the causes and conditions required to see a Buddha but do not fulfill the causes and conditions
i natim; himself i by his name Lo ill juna, but by his till < cl i the Dharma teacher on the
(hi ii 'i m ' mi / / , mat iv/. Bui ilii h potln i o risky that it h lull i i i <
required to eat and drink. Others fulfill the causes and conditions required to eat and drink but do not fulfil
the causes and conditions required to see a Buddha. It is like the black snake (kalasarpa) that sleeps while
clasping the jewel at the top of its head (cuddmani). There are arhats who beg for their food and get
nothing.
Thus, at the time of the Buddha Kasyapa, two brothers left home (pravrajita) in order to seek the Path
(mdrga). 737 The first observed the precepts (siladhara), recited the sutras (sutrapathaka) and practiced
dhyana; the second solicited patrons (ddnapati) and cultivated meritorious actions (punyakarman). When
Buddha Sakyamuni appeared in the world, the first was born into a merchant's (sresthiri) household and the
second became a great white elephant (pandaragaja) whose strength conquered the enemies. The
merchant's son left home (pravrajita) to practice the Path. He became an arhat endowed with the six
abhijhds but, as a result of his restricted merits, he obtained his food with difficulty when he begged. one
day he entered into a city, bowl in hand, to beg his food, but he could not obtain anything. Coming to the
stable of the white elephant, he saw that the king furnished the latter with everything in abundance. 73 8
He said to the elephant: "You and I together have committed sins (dosa, kilbisa)." The elephant was at
once remorseful and spent three days without eating. Worried, its keepers set out to look for the monk and,
having found him, asked: "What spell (mantra) have you placed on the king's white elephant that it is sick
and does not eat?" He answered: "In a previous lifetime, this elephant was my younger brother; under the
Buddha Kasyapa we left home (pravrajita) together to practice the Path. I was satisfied to keep the
precepts, recite sutras and practice dhyana, but I did not practice generosity (ddna); on the other hand, my
brother limited himself to soliciting patrons (ddnapati) and making gifts; he did not observe the precepts
and did not educate himself. Having thus renounced observing the precepts, reciting sutras and practicing
dhyana, today he is this elephant; but because he was very generous, food (dhdra) and amenities [119c]
(pariskdra) come to him in abundance. As for myself, I was content to practice the Path but I was not
generous in making gifts; thus today, even though I have attained [the fruit] of arhathood, I am
unsuccessful in getting any food when I beg. "739
This explains why causes and conditions (hetupratyaya) vary [for each individual] and why, although
being born in [the golden] age of a Buddha, one may still be hungry and thirsty.
Question. - How did these beings see their bowls filled (purnapatra bhavanti sma)l
Answer. - Some say that the Buddha, by his miraculous power (rddhibala), created (nirmitite) food that
satisfied them. According to others, the Buddha's rays, on touching their bodies, suppressed their hunger
and thirst. This is like the wish- fulfilling jewel (cintamani): those who think of it have neither hunger nor
thirst. What then could be said of those who meet the Buddha?
'-' ' The story of the two brothers here is taken from Tsa p'i yu king, T 207 (no. 3), p. 523a (tr. Chavannes, Contcs, 11. p.
4-6).
'3° According to Tsa p'i yu king, the king maintained this elephant in luxury and had assigned the revenue of a city of
man\ hundreds of households to the elephant's maintenance.
'•'" In Tsa p'i yu king, it was to the king that the monk made this explanation; the king's understanding was awakened
and he released the monk.
VIII. [The sutra says that] the sick are cured (rogasprstd vigatarogd bhavanto sma). There are two kinds of
sickness (wga, vyddhi):740
1) All kinds of illnesses are contracted as punishment iyipdkd) of actions carried out in previous lifetimes
(purvajanmakarman).
2) In the present lifetime, all kinds of illnesses are also contracted following sudden cold (sita), heat (usna)
or wind iydyii). In the present lifetime, sicknesses are of two types: ;') internal sicknesses
(adhydtmikarogd): disturbances of the five internal organs, coagulation, sickness due to the stars, etc.; ii)
external sicknesses (bahyaroga): being crushed by a chariot, falling from a horse, being injured by
weapons and other accidents of this kind.
Question. - What are the causes of sickness?
Answer. - For having devoted oneself in past lifetimes to all kinds of violence, e.g., beatings, pillage,
imprisonment, etc., sicknesses are contracted in the course of the present lifetime. In the present lifetime,
again all kinds of sickness are contracted due to lack of hygiene, wrong nourishment, irregularity of
sleeping and rising. There are 404 different illnesses. These illnesses are cured by the Buddha's miraculous
powers (rddhibala). What is said is as follows:741
740 See Hobogirin, By 6, p. 155.
' 41 In the Pali text (Vinaya, I, p. 301-302) there is the story of the sick and abandoned monk whom the Buddha washed
with his own hands:
Taut i Itoti Anando padato uccaretva mancakc
nipatesiiin.
The same story occurs in many texts: Tseng yi a han T 125, k. 30, p. 766b-767b; Cheng king, T 154 (no. 26), k. 3, p. 89b-
90a; P'ou sa pen cheng man louen, T 160 (no, 1 1), k. 4, p. 342b-c; Fa kiu p'i yu king, T 21 1, k. 2, p. 591b-c; Wou fen liu,
T 1421, k. 20, p. 139c; Mo ho seng k'i liu, T 1425, k. 28, p. 455a-457b; Sseu fen liu, T 1428, k. 41, p. 861b-c; Che song
liu, T 1435, k. 28, p. 205a-b; Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 1087, K. 6, p. 899b (tr. Beal, II, p. 5; Watters, Travels, I, p. 387).
There are some differences among these stories:
a. The scene takes place al Sravasti in most of the sources , but in Ragagrha in T 125 and T 160 and in the kingdom of
Men t'i (154 and 8; 64 and 9) in T 211. Hiuan Tsang may have visited the sttipa commemorating this cure, either NE of
Sravasti (according to the Si yu ki, I.e.) or NE of Rajagrha (according to the Che che yao Ian, T 2127, k. 2, p. 306a).
b. In T 125, the sick man calls to the Buddha for help and the Buddha hears his cry by means of his divine ear.
c. The Buddha cures the sick man, sometimes without the aid of anyone else (T 211, T 1421, T 1428, T 1435, T 2087),
sometimes with the help of Ananda (Pali Vinaya; T 1425) or Sakra (T 160 and Mpps) or Vaisramana and Sakra (T125).
d. In three sources (T 154, T 211 and Mpps), the sickness and the abandonment of the monk is presented as the
punishment for his evil conduct in past lifetimes.
e. All the Vinayas (Pali Vinaya, T 1421, T 1425, T 1428, T 1435) add that the Buddha profited from the occasion by
encouraging his monks to care for one anothet svhenth i i 1 f. Vinaya. 1. p. 30 / 'Itikklta h
pita .... so gilanam upatthaheyya.
"No longer, O monks, do you have a mother or father to care for you. If you do not care for one another, who will care for
you? Whoever wishes to care forme must lake care of sick people."
The Buddha was in the country of Cho p'o t'i (SravastT). A vaisya invited him and the samgha to take a
meal at his house. There are five reasons {hetupratyaya) why the Buddha, staying in a vihara, would go for
a meal: 7) He wishes to enter into samadhi; 2) He wishes to preach the Dharma to the devas; 3) He wishes
to visit the monks' cells in the course of his walk; 4) He wishes to care for the sick monks (gldnopasthdna);
5) He wants the monks who have not yet taken the precepts to take the precepta ( sUasdddna). Then raising
up the door-latch with his hand, the Buddha entered the bhiksus' cells; he saw a bhiksu who was sick and
had no care-giver (gldnopasthdyika): unable to rise up from his bed, he carried out all his needs in his bed.
The Buddha asked him: "Why, O unfortunate man, are you alone and without a care-giver?" The bhiksu
answered: " Bhagavat, I am lazy by nature (svabhdvdkdraka) and, when the others were sick, I did not care
for them; thus, now that I am sick, the others are not caring for me." The Buddha said to him: "My child, it
is I who am going to take care of you." Then Che t'i p'o na min (Sakro devanam indrah) brought water
(udakd) and the Buddha, with his own hands, washed the sick man's body. When the washing was finished,
all the sick man's sufferings had disappeared, his body and his mind were at peace (yogaksema). Then the
Bhagavat helped the sick bhiksu rise and go out of his cell, gave him clean garments, then he made him go
back in, refresh his mattri - . (mam aka) and sit down.Then he said to the sick bhiksu: "For a long time you
have sought [120 a] indolently to attain that which you have not yet attained, to understand that which you
have not yet understood. This is why you have had to undergo these sufferings and you will still have more
to suffer." Hearing these words, the bhiksu said to himself: "The Buddha's loving-kindness is immense
(apramdna), his miraculous power incalculable (asamkhyeya). When he washed me with his hand, my
sorrows immediately disappeared; my body and my mind rejoiced."
This is how the sick are healed by the miraculous power of the Buddha.
IX. [The sutra says that] the crippled recover their wholeness (hvnendritdh paripurnendriyd bhavanti sma).
Why are they crippled?
7) In the course of their previous existences (purvajanma), these people had mutilated bodies (kdya), cut
off heads (siras), hands and feet (panipclcla) and broken limbs (kclyahhaga). Or they had broken a statue of
the Buddha (buddhapratimd) and torn off its nose (ghrdna); they had damaged a picture of a saint or
broken the grindstone of their parents. For these sins they are often crippled (aparipurnakdya) when they
take on a body. Furthermore, as punishment for their bad dharmas (akusaladharmavipdka), they are ugly
(yirupa) from birth.
f I'ln lula ii' in- idin Vinaya hich doi ivi > m to hav< iln Ion ncvcrthcli recommends that the image of Ihc
Buddha himself taking care of a sick person (T 1451, k. 17, p. 283b) be painted in the monastery infirmaries. The Mpps
once more shows its nature of being a compilation. It borrows its story from the Sarvastivadin Vinaya, (Che song liu, T
1435, k. 28, p. 205a-b). At the start, it repeats it almost word-for-word until it incorporates a digression into the story
where it is a matter of the five reasons why the Buddha, staying in a vihara. accepts an invitation from outside. Towards
the end, it departs from its main source to mention the intervention of Sakra in the care given to the sick man (detail
borrowed perhaps from Pen cheng man louen, T 160, or from Tseng yi a han, T 125 ) and to note thai Ihc sickness and the
abandonment of the monk were punishments for his past actions (detail borrowed from the Cheng king, Y 154, or from
the Fa kiu p'i yu king, T 21 1).
2) In the present existence {ihajanma), they are victims of robbers (caura) or butchers (ghdtaka) and they
are crippled because of all this. Or the sicknesses (vyddhi) of wind (vclyu), cold (sTta) or heat (usna) causes
them physical discomfort and parts of their bodies become infected; this is why they are crippled. But
thanks to the Buddha's loving-kindness they recover their wholeness.
Thus, for example, the servant of the Jetavana (jetavanaramika) called Kien si (Gandaka)742 [Gandaka in
the Ts'in language means 'cut up']. He was the brother of king Po sseu ni (Prasenajit); he was handsome
(abhirupa), kind (bhadra) and endowed with an excellent heart (kalydndsaya). A high court lady fell in
love wih him, called him secretly and asked him to follow her, but Gandaka refused. The lady became very
angry and slandered him to the king, placing the blame on him.743 on hearing this, the king had him cut
into pieces (gandagandam) and thrown into a cemetery (smasana). As he was not yet dead, a raksas tiger-
wolf came during the night to feed him.744 Then the Buddha came to him and shone his rays on him; his
limbs reunited at once and his heart felt great joy. 745 The Buddha preached the Dharma to him and he
attained the threefold Path (mdrgatraya). Taking him by the hand, the Buddha led him to the Jetavana.
Then Gandaka said: "My body was broken and abandoned; the Buddha has rejoined my limbs; I must
dedicate my life to him. I give my body to the Buddha and to the samgha of bhikshus." The next day, on
hearing of this event, king Prasenajit went to the Jetavana and said to Gandaka: "I am sorry for the mistake
[I have committed] against you; indeed, you are not guilty, I have wrongly punished you; therefore I am
' 42 Kien ti may well conceal an original Sanskrit Khandin which also means 'cut up', but Gandaka is attested by the
Divyavadana, p. 155: He was originally called Kala, but 'as his body had been cut inks pieces, his name was changed to
Gandaka.' Indeed, Kien ti can easily conceal an original Ganda, because Kien (93 and 9) can as well translate gan as
k(h)an, and ti (64 and 5) probably translates a final difkaj: Gandika.
His story, told here, also occurs with some divergences in detail in the Divyavadana, p. 153-155 (tr. Burnouf,
Introduction, p. 154-156) and (he Ylulasarvmastivadin Vinaya, Ken pen chouo ... tsacheT 1451, k. 26,p. 330b-c.
The same Gandaka, called Ganda in the Pali sources, appears also in another story. The gardener of king Prasenajit. he
went one day to the palace to offei fchi king i ripe mango (ambapakkd) But meeting die Buddha on the way who was on
his begging round, he offered it to him instead. The Buddha ate it at once and gave the seed (atthi) to Ananda to plant in
the garden at l he gate of the city. A tree grew out of it immediate!) to the height of one hundred cubits, laden with flowers
and fruits. Cf. Jataka, IV, p. 264-265; Dhammapadattha, III, p. 206-208 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, III, p. 41). It was at the
foot of this mango tree, called Gandamba. thai the Buddha accomplished the great miracle of Sravasd (cf Nidanakatha. p.
88, Milinda, p. 349).
' 4 -' In the Divyavadan i md 111 vlula u i li adin Vinaya (I.e.), the palace lady threw a garland of flowers (snigdania)
from the high terrace that fell onto Gandaka: She evil meaning people went to tell the king thai Gandaka had seduced one
of his ladies.
744 There is no mention of a tiger-wolf in the other sources.
' 45 Here Gandaka is healed by the Buddha's light and this confirms the thesis to be established, that on contact with the
Buddha's rays, the crippled recover their \\ holcncss. But in the DTvya and the Miila area i adin v inaya (I.e.) the Buddha
does not intervene directly in Gandaka's healing. He sends Ananda to restore the young man's hands and feet by
pronouncing the phrase "Among all beings ... the Tathagata is foremost: among all dharmas .... detachment (viragti) is
foremost; among ail assemblies ... the assembly of the Hearers of the Tathagata is foremost." Hardly had these words
been pronounced than the body of the \ oung man resumed its former condition and he attained (he slate of anagamin.
going to give you half of my kingdom as compensation." Gandaka answered: "I am satisfied, O king, you
are not guilty either: it must be that way as punishment (yipakd) for faults [that I have committed] during
my previous existences (purvanivasa). But today I have given my body to the Buddha and the samgha; I
will not return with you. "746
This is how the crippled who have lost their wholeness recover it when they receive the Buddha's rays.
This is why [the sutra] says that the crippled recover their wholeness {limcndriyd/i paripurnendriyd
bliavanti). They are reestablished as soon as they receive the Buddha's rays.
[120 b] Sutra: All beings obtained the mind of equanimity {sarvasattvdh samacitta bliavanti sma) by
thinking of one another [with the feelings one would feel] for one's mother (matr), one's father (pitr), one's
older brother (bhratr), one's younger brother (kamyabhrdtr) , one's older sister (bhagini), one's younger
sister (kamiyabhagini), one's relati I a • \ m pirilual riend (kalydna litrd). They practiced the
ten wholesome ways of acting (dasakusalakarmapathasevinas ca bhavanti sma). Pure, remaining celibate,
they were without faults (sucayo brahmacdrino nirdmaydh) and were full of bliss like that experienced by
a bhiksu m the third clhyana (sarvasukhasaiuarpifd iclrsam sukham pratihibliantc sma tadyathdpi ndma
trtyadhyanasamdpannasya bhiksuh). They approved of wisdom (prajha), keeping the precepts (sila),
mastery of the self (dama) and non-violence towards beings {prdnibhutesu avihimsa).141
Sastra: Question.- These beings had not renounced desire (avitardga), were not concentrated (asamdhita)
and did not possess the four limitless ones (apramanacitta);748 how could they attain an evenness of mind
(samacittata)?
I. Answer. - This evenness (samata) is not that of concentration; it is absence of hostility (avaira) and
malice (avyapada) towards all beings. Thanks to this evenness, they consider one another with good
feelings. Concerning this mind of evenness (samacitta), it is said in a sutra: "What is samacitta? It is to
consider one another with the feelings one would feel for one's father or mother."
Question. - Do they consider all beings indiscriminately as their father, mother, elder brother, younger
brother, older sister or younger sister?
' 4 " The DTvyavadana adds that he will retire into the Buddha's hermitage and that he will be the Buddha's servant
(upasthayaka).
/H ' 'I he lasl phrase translates only imperfectly the original Sanskrit of the I'ahcavimsati, p. 10 and the Satasahasrika. p.
19: tasminn eva m sain i vainrupaya all rauihiii i il inistri "At that very moment, they were filled with
such wisdom that they cried: "Long live mastery of the self! Long live the discipline! Long live the practice of the
religious life! Long live non-violence tow aid inimati bein
unci 1 >Mii kindni • I ompa ion l ). joy ( , md equanimity (upeksa).
Answer. - No. They consider old people as their father and mother, large people as their elder brother,
small people as their younger brother; similarly for elder or younger sister. By the power of samdcitta,
everybody is considered as a relative (jndti).
Question. - Why call father and mother somebody who is neither father nor mother, etc.? Why call
somebody who is not a relative a relative? Is that not a falsehood {mrsdvdda)!
Answer. - In the course of innumerable generations, all beings have been one's father, mother, elder
brother, younger brother, elder sister, younger sister and relative. Furthermore, according to the true nature
(satyalaksana) of dharmas, there is no father or mother, no elder or younger brother; but people who are
submerged in the error of self (dtmaviparydsdbhinivista) believe in their existence and thus there is the
question of father and mother, elder and younger brother. Therefore it is not a lie when, by virtue of a
wholesome mind (kiisalacitta), we consider one another [with the feelings we would feel] for a father or
mother. Finally, there are people who, out of interest, treat as a father someone who is not their father and
as a mother someone who is not their mother. It is the same for elder brother, younger brother and children.
There are people who send away their son when he is badly behaved and other families take him in and
treat him as their own son.
A stanza says:
Consider another person's wife (parakalatra) as a mother,
Consider the welfare of another (paradhana) like fire,
Consider all beings as your relatives,
This is what is called the vision of evenness.
II. [The sutra says that] all beings practice the ten good paths of action (dasukusuluclhuunapathasevino
bhavanti sma).
1) The paths of bodily action (kdyakarmapatha) are three in number: abstaining (virati) from murder
puta), theft I attdddna), and ngful u] 1 1 i ' hydcdra)
2) The paths of vocal action (vdkkarmapatha) are four in number: abstaining from falsehood (mrsdvddd),
slander (paisunyavdda), harmful speech (pdrusyavdda) and thoughtless speech (sambhinnapraldpd).
3) The paths of mental action {manaskarmapatha) arc three in number: abstaining from envy (abhidhyd),
spitefulness in. //>./,/./) and wrong \ iews imilliyililrsti)J4 l >
Every path of action, from abstention from murder to abstention from wrong views, involves four
subdivisions: not to kill beings oneself, not to order others to kill, praising (prasamsd) those who do not
kill, rejoicing (anumodana) when one does not kill.
[120 c] Question. - The last three paths of action, [abstaining from envy, spitefulness and wrong views]
are not actions, whereas the first seven are actions. Then why speak of 'ten paths of action'?
749 These ten karmapatha are listed in the same way in Anguttara, V, p. 261, 266-267; Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 1052), k. 37,
p. 274c; Mahavyutpatti, no. 1685-1698; Kosha, IV, p. 168. See Rhys Davids-Stede, s.v. kamniapatha.
Answer. - Because they are often resorted to, they are rightly called 'paths of action'. Although the last
three may not be actions, they can give rise to actions; this is why they are called paths of action as a whole
(samdsatah).
III. [The surra continues]: "Pure, observing chastity, they are without fault" (sucayo brahmcdrino
nirdmaydh).
Question. - We have just said that these beings practiced the ten wholsome paths of action and the
argument is satisfactory. Why add that they are pure and practice chastity?
Answer. - There are beings who practice the ten wholsome paths of action and who have not cut through
their sensual desire. Here we are also praising those who observe the conduct of king Brahma
(brahmacarya, in the sense of chastity). Because they have cut through lust, [the sutra] says that they are
'pure, chaste and without fault'. People who practice impurity have an ugly malodorous body. This is why
we praise those who have cut through their sensual desire by saying that they are without fault (nirdmaya).
IV. [The sutra says] that they were full of bliss (sarvasukhasamarpita).
Question. - What is bliss (sukha)!
Answer. - This bliss is of two types, internal bliss (ddhydtimkasukha) and the bliss of nirvana
(nirvdnasukha). This bliss is not the result of the five coarse objects (rajas-). This mental bliss (cittasukha)
is like water from a spring that gushes forth spontaneously from the rocks and does not come from the
outside. By practicing the mind of evenness (samacitta), by observing chastity (brahmacarya), by
practicing the ten wholesome paths of action (dasakusalakarmapatha), one is pure (suci) and faultless: this
is what is called internal bliss.
Question. - To what realm (dhdtu) does this bliss belong? Does it belong to the desire realm (kamadhatu),
the form realm {lfipad/ultu) or the formless realm (difipyadlultu)'?
Answer. - This bliss both belongs to and does not belong to the desire realm (kamadhatu); it does not
belong to the form realm or the formless realm. The sutra says that it is 'like that experienced by a bhiksu
entered into the third dhyana' (taclyathclpi ntima trtyaclhyclnasamapaiinasya hhiksoh). If this bliss belonged
to the form realm (rupadhdtu), the sutra would not have used this comparison (upamdna); that is why we
know that it does not belong to the form realm. It is a matter here of a mind of the desire realm
(kdmadhdtucitta) that produces a joy filling the entire body; it is like a warm joy that floods the body,
makes it flexible (snigdha), soft and happy (sukha). Those who are without bonds (anavacara) discover
the nature (laksana) of Prajnaparamita; they see that all dharmas are unborn (anutpanna) and unceasing
(aniruddha); they acquire real wisdom (prajhd) and their mind is without attachment (asahga). The bliss of
the signless (dnimittasukha) is the absence of bonds.
Question. - The Buddha has said that nirvana is the supreme bliss (nirvdnam paramam sukham);750 why
do you speak here about the bliss of the third dhyana (trtfyadhdnasukha)!
750 p or exam pie 5 i n the well-known stanza of the Magandiyasutta (Majjhima, 1, p. 508: Ichong a han. T 26. k. .'
672b):
Answer.751 - There are two types of bliss, the bliss that involves feeling {saveditasukha) and the bliss that
involves the abandonment of feeling {veditanirodhasukha). In the latter, the five aggregates
(pancaskandha) are completely eliminated and there is no further rebirth; this is the bliss of nirvana-
witli > ■ idui (nirupadhi lanirrdna uklui). But the bliss of the mind (cittdnanda) that suppresses
displeasure (arati) and the afflictions (Mesa) is called pleasant feeling (sukhavedana) and the fullness of
the pleasant feeling (sukhavedandparipuri) occurs in the third dhyana. This is why [the bliss which these
people experience] is compared to that of the third dhyana.
Question. - The first and second dhyanas involve a pleasant feeling as well: why does the sutra speak only
of the third dhyana?
Answer. - Bliss is lesser (avara), medium (madhya) and greater (agra). The lesser bliss is that of the first
dhyana, the medium bliss is that of the second dhyana, the greater bliss is that of the third dyana.
In the first dhyana it is twofold: the faculty of pleasure (sukhendriya) and the faculty of satisfaction
(saumanasayendriya), namely, the faculty of pleasure associated with the [first] five consciousnesses
(pancavijnanasampraxukiaka sukhendriya) and the faculty of satisfaction associated with the mental
i i ii u i a i i lyiikataka sen a vendriya)
[121 a] In the second dhyana, there is the faculty of satisfaction associated with the mental consciousness
(manovijhdnasainprayuktaka saumasyendriya).
In the third dhyana there is the pleasure associated with the mental consciousness
(manovijnanasamprayuktaka sukhendriya).
In all the threefold world (traidhatuka), with the exception of the third dhyana, this faculty of pleasure
associated with the mental consciousness is absent. The [first] five consciousnesses (pahcavijndna) are
unable to conceive (vikalpana) things; they do not know their names (nama) or their symbols (samketa) or
their marks (nimitta). At the moment it is produced, the visual consciousness (caksurvijndna) is like a first
indication; but it is the mental consciousness arising later [that knows the thing]. This is why the faculty of
pleasure associated with the first five consciou ne • (, iheavijhdna am pi ivuktaka .ukhendriya) is
unable to perfect (paripr) happiness; it is the faculty of pleasure associated with the mental consciousness
(manovijnanasamprayukiaka sukhendriya) that perfects bliss. Consequently if, in the third dhyana, the
qualities (guna) are few in number, bliss (sukha) abounds. It is not vimoksa, abhibhvayatana or
krtsnayatana which surpasses this third dhyana, for they themselves lack this bliss. This is why the sutra
compares the [bliss of these beings] to that experienced by a bhikshu in the third dhyana.
V. [The sutra says]: "They approve of wisdom (prajna), keeping the precepts (sila), mastery of the self
(dama) and non-violence toward others (prdnibhutesv avihimsa)?'
Question. - Having spoken of the bliss [which they experience], why does the sutra say that they approve
of wisdom?
Arogyaparama lahiui nihhanain parainain sukhain
attliaiigiko ca niaggdiiain klieiuaiu ainatagdininam >
'-*1 For this entire explanation, see Kosa, VIII, p. 150 seq., where there are some refereces.
Answer. - Those who have not found bliss (sukha) can still acquire qualities (guna); but when they have
found it, attachment to bliss (sangasukha) dominates and they no longer acquire qualities. This is why,
immediately after this bliss, they set their minds to the approval of wisdom Those who approve wisdom
keep the precepts, master themselves and do no harm to others.
Question. - Keeping the precepts is 'mastering oneself and 'not harming others'; why add this useless
comment?
Answer. - Purity of body and sppech (kayavakkausalya) constitutes 'keeping the precepts'; setting one's
mind on the wholesome is 'mastering oneself and also 'not harming others'. All these qualities are included
in the section on morality (silaskandha), the section on concentration (samadhiskandha) and the section on
wisdom (prajnaskandha) J 52 Keeping the precepts constitutes the silaskandha; mastering oneself
constitutes the samaclhiskaiulha: not harming others - loving-kindness (maitri) in the course of dhyana and
other qualities (guna) - constitutes the prajnaskanda.
Question. - Nobody boasts about hating the precepts. Why does the sutra say that the beings [whom it
praises here] approve the observing of the precepts?
Answer. - There are some brahmins attached to worldly things (lokadharmasakta) who say: "Leaving
home, observing the precepts, those are the deeds of a casteless person. Dedicating one's life to acquiring
wealth (dhana) and accumulating qualities (guna), thai is what is good. How can a mendicant (pravrajita)
who begs for his food and makes no personal effort acquire qualities?" This is how they criticize those who
keep the precepts.
There are also people attached to political institutions who criticize the partisans of self-mastery (dama).
They say: "People should govern the world by law. Rewarding good and punishing evil is an inviolable
principle. There is great profit in never forgetting to pay respect to one's parents, establishing laws and
helping one's neighbor. Why should one be limited to improving oneself, mastering oneself, without doing
anything about putting the disordered world into order, or helping those in need?" This is how they
criticize the partisans of self-mastery.
Finally, there are people who criticize the partisans of non-violence towards beings (pmnibhutesv
avihimsa) by saying: "They do not punish the wicked, they [121b] do not arrest thieves or chastise rogues;
they show no severity towards the guilty; they are unable to repel an offense or put aside difficulties. What
is the use of preserving profitless silence?" This is how they criticize the partisans of non-violence toward
beings. They also say:
Why does a man without energy
Come into the world?
He does not avoid his own difficulties.
He is like a wooden statue fixed in the ground.
'^ 2 These three skandhas. Ma, samadhi and prajna are the three elements constituting the Path. See for example
Anguttara, I, p. 291.
With evil words like these, they criticize non-violence toward beings.
But the gods and men [with whom the sutra is concerned] all approve of wisdom, observation of the
precepts, mastery of oneself and non-violence toward beings. Practicing these good dharmas, [they enjoy]
peace of body and mind (kdyacittayogaksema) and the fearlessnesses (vaisdradya); they are without worry
and without anger; they have a good reputation; they are beloved by people; they are going towards entry
into nirvana. When their life reaches its end and they think about their merits, they feel neither sorrow nor
remorse. If they do not attain nirvana, they are reborn in the Buddha universes or in the heavens (svarga).
This is why the sutra say that they approve wisdom, keeping the precepts, self-mastery and non-violence
toward beings.
ACT VI
Siitra: Then the Bhagavat, seated on the lion-seat, mastered the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu by his
brilliance, his color, his beauty and his splendor, and extended [his domination] as far as universes of the
ten directions as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, in the same way that Sumeru, king of the
mountains, surpasses all the mountains by its brilliance, its color, its beauty and its splendor (Atha khalu
Bhagavams tasminn eva simhclsane nisannah imam triscHiasramahciscihasrain lokaclhcltum ahhihhuya
tisthati ... cihhayci vanjcua sriyci te/asci ca. ycivacl ckisaclik.su gahgcinaclFvcilukopamcin lokaclhcltun abhibhiiya
tisthati. tadyathdpi ncima Sumcruh parvataixijah sarvaparvatcin ahhihhuya tisthati ... cihhciyci varnenasriya
tejasa ca).
Sastra: Question.- By means of what power {bald) does he thus dominate all beings with his brilliance,
beauty and splendor? The cakravrtin kings, the devas and the aryas also have power, brilliance and beauty;
why speak only of the Buddha's superiority here?
Answer. - Although these aryas have brilliance and beauty, theirs are limited like the stars that are dimmed
and disappear at sunrise (suryodaya). For numberless [k. 9, 121c] asamkhyeyakalpas the Buddha has
accumulated great qualities and all the accumulations (sambhara); and because his merits (hetupratyaya)
are great, his retribution ( vipdkaphald) also is great. This is not the case for other men.
Moreover, from age to age the Buddha has practiced the austerities (duskaracaryd) beyond measure or
limit; unceasingly he has sacrificed his head, his eyes, his marrow and a fortiori, his kingdom, his wealth,
his wife and his children. Having, from age to age, cultivated all types of morality (sila), patience (ksanti),
energy (virya), dhyana, and acquired incomparable (anupama), pure (visuddha), unchangeable (avikdta)
and inexhaustible (aksaya) wisdom (prajnd), his accumulations (sambhara) were complete. By the power
of retribution, he has obtained [as result] an incalculable powerful superiority. This is why we have said
that when the merits are large, the reward also is large.
Question. - If the miraculous power (rddhibala) of the Buddha is immense, if his beauty and grandeur are
ineffable (avachaya), why would he have to undergo the retribution of the nine sins (navappativipaka)?'/ '53
of references to these nine torments of the Buddha of which the majority w
1 ) Suiidan's slander. At the instigation of the heresies, Sundan went to the Jctavana in the evening, announcing So (hose
who questioned her that she was going to spend the night in the Buddha's cell. Actually, she went to stay in the
parivrajakas' monastery, but the next day she made it appear as if she was coming back from ihc Jctavana. After a few
days, the heretics had hei killed and hid her body under a heap of rubbish near Ihc Jctavana: then they announced her
disappearance to king Prascnajit. A search was carried out and the corpse of Sundarl was found near the Gandliakuti cell
of the Buddha. The heretics placed her body on a litter and carried it about in the city of Sravasti, crying: "Sec the work
ol' Ihc Sakya monks!" The bhiksus were all insulted, but the Buddha annouccd to them that lite public uprising would end
in seven days. The murderers were found by She king and confessed having been lured by ihc heretics who were forced to
retract their accusation against the Buddha and his monks.
Pali sources: Udana. p/ 43-45 (tr. Seidenstiicker, p. 66-69); Apadana, p. 229, v. 6; Jataka, II, p. 415-417 (tr. Burlingame,
Legends, III, p. 189-191); Udana Comm., p. 256; Suttanipata Comm., II, p. 528.
Chinese sources: Hing k'i hing king, T 197 (no. 1), k. 1, p. 164b-165c; Yi tsou king, T 198 (no. 3), k. 1, p. 176b-177c; Ta
pao tsi king, T 310, k. 28, p. 54cl8; P'ou sa chou t'ai king, T 384, k. 7, p. 1056b, (where Sundarl is called Sundaranandi);
Po king tch'ao, T 790, p. 729bl; Ken pen chouo... yao che, T 1448, k. 18, p. 95a5 (where Sundarl is called Mei yong);
Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 6, p. 899c (re. Beal, II, p. 7-8; tr. Watters, I, p. 389).
2) Slander by Cinca. - See above.
3) Rock thrown by Devadatta. - Pali sources: Vinaya, II, p. 193 (tr. Rh. D.- Oldenberg, III, p. 243): atha kho Devadatto
i i i n .... hliagavato n uppad padana, I, p. 300, v. 136 (tr. Rhys Davids, I,
p. 193).
Chinese sources: Hing k'i hing king, T 197 (no. 7), k. 2, p. 170b-c; P'ou sa chou t'ai king, T 384, k. 7, p. 1055c; Ken pen
chouo... yao che T 1448, k. 18, p. 94al3; Fa hien, tr. Legge p. 83; Hiuan (sang in Watters, Travels, II, p. 152; Yi tsing in
Chavannes, Religieux eminents, p. 155.
4) Wound caused by kliadira thorn. - Dasabala Kasyapa took care of the Buddha's foot wounded by an acacia thorn.
Sanskrit sources: Saddarsanasamuccaya, ed. Snail. |> ( / Uicid hliiksain atatyainan i viddln
hliiksavah.
Pali source: Apadana, I,p. 300, v. 22.
Chinese sources: Hing k'i hing king, T 107 (no. 6), k. 1, p. 168a-170b; Tsa pao tsang king, T. 203 (no. 80), k. 7, p. 481a-b
(tr. Chavannes, Contes, III, p. 78); Ta pao tsi king, T 310, k. 28, p. 154cl4; P'ou sa chou t'ai king, T 384, k. 7, p. 1056b;
Ken pen chou... yao che, T 1448, k. 18, p. 94bl4.
5) Headache 1 he Buddha suffered a headache at the time of the massacre of the Sakyas by Virudhaka, in Pali
Vidudabha. Ihc Pali sources, which essentially ate confirmed by the Sanskrit and Chinese sources, iell thai Pascnadi,
king of Kosala, had a son, Vidudabha, whose mother was a young slave named Vasabhakhattiya, the natural daughter of
Mahanaman, the successor to Suddhodana at ICapilavastu. Vasabhakhattiya had been fraudulently affianced by the
Sakyas. When the trick was subsequently discovered and Vidudabha u as li eatcd as 'the son of a slave' by the Sakyas, he
vowed to avenge himself. With the help of his general Dtgha ICarayana, lie dethroned his father Pascnadi, who fled from
Sravasti to take refuge with his former enemy Ajatasattu. Vidudabha marched igainst Kapilavastu and, despite the
intervention of the Buddha who three times succeeded in stopping the operations, he finally took the city and massacred
the entire Sakya clan. But he himself perished miserably as a result. In the Sanskrit sources, Vidudabha, his mother
Vasabhakhattiya and his minister Digha ICarayana, appear under the names of Virusaka, .Vlalika (or Vlallika) and Dirgha
Carayana respecth ely.
I lie story of the massacre of the Sakyas may be found: in Pali, in Jataka, IV, p. 144-153, and Dhammapadattha, I, p.337-
36l(li Burlin imc, / < II p 0-46 in inskril in i idanakalpalaya eh. XI, I / i (vol. I, p. 352-
393); in Chinese, in Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 26, p. 690a-693c; Lieou tou tsi king, T 152 (no. 54), k. 5, p. 30b -32a Or.
Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 202-212); Fa kiu p'i yu king, T 21 1, k. 1, p. 583b; Tch'ou yao king, T 212, k. 3, p. 624b-625a;
Liaou li wang king, T 513, vol. XIV, p. 783b-785b; Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 21, p. 141; Ken pen chouo... tsa che, T 1451,
k. 8-9, p. 239b-242a; Fa hien, tr. Legge, p. 67; Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 6, p. 900b and p. 901b-c (tr. Watters,
Travels, I, p. 395-396; II, p. 8-9); - in Tibetan in Rockhill, Life, p. 1 12-122.
I he headache from w liich the Buddha suffered on this occasion is mentioned in Apadana, I, p. 300, v. 24; Udana Comm.,
p. 264; Lieou tou tsi king, T 152, k. 5, p. 31b3-4; Hing k'i hing king, T 197 (no. 3), k. 1, p. 166c-167a; P'ou sa chou t'ai
king, T 384, k. 7, p. 1056b; Ken pen chouo... yao che, T 1448, k. 18,p. 96c9.
6) Eating horse feed. - See above.
7) Backache ■ The brahmin Dcvahita had to heal the Buddha when he suffered from a backache caused by a disturbance
of the wind element. He had Upa\asa m i igi in i i with warm water.
Sources: Samyutta, I, p. 174-175 (tr. Geiger, I, p. 173-274); Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 1181), k. 44, p. 4319b; T 100 (no. 95), k.
5, p. 407b; Hing k'i hing king, T 197 (no. 3), k. 1, p. 167c-168a; Ken pen chouo... yao che, T 1448, k. 18, p. 96c23 (tr.
Chavannes, Contes, II, p. 423-424); Ta tche tou louen, T 1509, k. 26, p. 249c; DIgha, III, p. 209; Majjhima, I, p. 354;
Samyutta, IV, p. 184.
8) Six rears of austerities. - A well-known period in the Buddha's life; see the fine study of the sources by J. Dutoit, Die
Duskaracarya des Bodliisattva, Strassburg, 1905.
9) Return with empty bowl. - See above.
The Mpps will return to these sufferings endured by the Buddha at k. 27, p. 261a.
From this brief summary of the sources, we see that the most authentic texts attribute a series of sufferings and illnesses to
the Buddha. How can such a perfect being be subject to suffering'? This is a problem w liich scholasticism has attempted to
a. The first explanation, and the one most conforming to the theory of retribution of actions, is that by these t(
sicknesses, the Buddha was expiating the faults of his previous existences. This is the explanation given in various texts:
The Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1448, k. 18, p. 94-96, tells a series of misdeeds of which the Buddha was guilty in his
earlier lifetimes and which, in the course of his last lifetime, earned him the following inconveniences: (7) Rock thrown
by Devadatta (p. 94a); (2) Wound caused by a thorn (p. 94b); (3) Return w ith empty bow I (p. 94c); ( ■/) Slander by Sundarl
(p. 95a); (5) Slander by Cinca (p. 95b); (6) Eating horse feed (p. 96a); (7) Six years of austerities (p. 96b); (8) Illnesses (p.
96b); (9) Headache (p. 96c); (10) Backache (p. 96c). Same list of misdeeds in the Pali Apadana; I, p. 299-301, section no.
387, entitled Puhhakannnapiloto. I hey earned the Buddha the following punishments: (7) Slander by Sundarf (v. 6); (2)
Slander by Cinca (v. 9); (3) Rock thrown by Devadatta (v. 16); (4) Hired assassins sent by Devadatta to kill the Buddha
(v. 18; cf. Vinaya, II, p. 191-193); (5) Nalagiri, the elephant, sent against the Buddha by Devadatta (v. 20; a famous
often-told episode, e.g., Vinaya, II, p. 194-196; Jataka, V, p. 333-337; Avadanasataka, I, p. 177-181; (6) Wound caused
by thorn (v. 22); (7) Headache (v. 24); (8) Eating horse feed (v. 26); (9) Backache (v. 27); (10) Dysentery (v. 28); (11)
Six years of austerities (v. 30). Kang Mong siang, a monk of Sogdian birth who went to China to Lo Yang in 194 A.D.,
translated into Chinese a sutra entitled .Hing k'i hing king if 197) which, according io some catalogues, is a text of the
Samyuktapitaka. this work contains ten stories telling the earlier actions which the Buddha had h) expiate in the course
of his last lifetime by ten sufferings: (1) Sundarfs slander (T 197, p. 164); (2) Slander by Cho mi po (p. 166); (3)
Headache (p. 166); (4) Rheumatism (p. 167); (5) Backache (p. 167); (6) Wound by thorn (p. 168); (7) Rock thrown by
Devadatta (p. 170); (8) Cinca's slander (p. 170); (9) Eating horse feed (p. 170); (10) Six years of austerities (p. 172).
It was most certainly from these works or other similar works thai the objections raised in the Mpps were borrowed for
the "List of nine sins" of the Buddha.
1) The brahmacarini Souen t'o li (Sundan) slandered (abhyakhyati) the Buddha, and five hundred arhats
wiped out the slander.
All these lexis agree that the Buddha, despite his perfection, remained subject to retribution for his past actions or, as the
Divyavadana expresses it, "The Victorious ones themselves are not freed from their actions" (karmabhis te 'pi Jina
iiiiiktali).
b. But it was not long before such a radical application of the law of karma to the case of the Buddha was shocking. Two
compromises have been found:
The first consists of saying that, whatever his experiences may be, the Buddha feels only pleasant feelings. Cf. the
Dcvadahasutta (.Ylajjhima, li, p. 227: Tchong a han, T 25 (no. 19): "If beings feci pleasure or pain as a result of their pas!
actions, then, O monks, the Tathagata has done good actions since, at the moment, he is experiencing pure and pleasant
feelings" (sace, hlukkluivc, satta puhhckatalictii sukliadiikluiiii .... anasava suklia vedana vedeti).
Another compromise comments that, besides the torments and illnesses resulting from past actions, there arc others that
are simply due to the present physical conditions. This is what the Buddha himself explained to Slvaka in Samyutta, IV,
p. 230-231 (cf. Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 977), k. 35, p. 252c-253a; T 100 (no. 211), k. 11, p. 432b-c). Without saying it
explicitly, this sutra seems to mean thai the Buddha is subject only to illnesses reulting from physical conditions (cf. P.
Dcmicvillc in Hobogirin, Byo. p. 234. this, indeed, is the thesis of the Milinda, p. 134-136, which recalls the Buddha's
illnesses - wounding of the foot, dysentery (DIgha, II, p. 128, body problems (Vinaya, I, p. 178-180), wind sickness
(Samyutta, I, p. 174) - only to affirm immediate!) that none of the feelings experienced by the Buddha, come from action
(na -tthi Bhagavato kaiii/uavipdkajd vedana).
c. For the Greater Vehicle whose ideas the Mpps is expressing here the Buddha's illnesses are simulated illnesses.
Superior to the world (lokattara), the Buddha conforms to the world (lokanuvaratana) and simulates illness in order to
console suffering humanity and assure its conversion by this soteriological artifice (updya). A text of the Ratnakuta, T
310, k. 28, p. 134c is especially clear: How do the bodhisattva mahasattvas understand the intentional teaching
l i ~ Hisita) of the I i ■ li i it I Ik I odhi ill m ih isattva i killful in pn ( i h undi i i niiim* tin i role un i
and secret meaning hidden in the sutras. O son of noble family, when I prophecy the attainment of supreme perfect
enlightenment to the sra\ akas, that is not correct; when I say to Ananda thai I ha\ e a backache, that is not correct; when I
say to the bhiksus: "I am old, you should find an a- i i ml i , thayaka) loi me", that is not correct. O son of noble
family, it is not correct that in several places the tathagata triumphed over the tirthikas and their systems one after
another: it is not correct Ilia.! an acacia thorn (kliu ii ■'< intaka) \ nind d lli<- I ithag ,i i in the fool v\ hen the Tathagata
says: "Devadatta was my hercditan eneim , he pursued me ceaselessly and tried to deceive me", that is not correct. It is
not ni' i i «li ii ilK I if igata, i nli ring Srava h m id' i b< ; tin roui d in Clio li \ (Sal i) i In ill igi ol 'In Li ihmin
and returned with empty bowl. It is not correct that Cihcamanavika and Sundan, attaching a wooden bowl to her belly
[pn i ndin to b pi n nt] I nd n d the Buddha It is not correct that the Tathagata, once dwelling in the land of
\ i mi i in i' In had a i pi d th im it iti h ol tin I i ihi.uii ci rja pi in tin Hn month of' i i i im onh b rl
(yava)-" Ibid., k. 108, p. 604b (tr. in Hobogirin, Byo, p. 235: "Just as when a pharmacist, able to cure all the sicknesses
but who himself is free of them, takes a bitter drug to persuade sick people to take it following his example, so the
Tathagata, although he has destroyed in himself all the sicknesses of the afflictions and has the sovereign mastery of all
the dharmas, carries out such and such a bad action to obtain such and such a retribution and actualize such and such a
factor, in order thai beings avoid every obstacle of action and cultivate the practices of purity." - The same ideas are
i pi cd n ih imalakirtinird isutra i 17 >l hn h iin vlpp ill ivi lengthy extract.
2) The brahmani Tc/icin c/io (Cifica) attached [to her belly] a wooden bowl (duntnuindcilika) pretending she
was pregnant, and slandered the Buddha.
3) T'i p'o ta (Devadatta) pushed down a rock (Oila) to crush the Buddha and wounded him on his big toe
(padmamgusta).
4) While walking in the woods, the Buddha hurt his foot.
5) When king P'i leou li (Virudhaka) and his army massacred the Sakyas, the Buddha had a headache
(sirsadukha).
6) Having accepted the invitation of the brahmin ,4 k'i ta to (Agnidatta), the Buddha had to eat horse feed
(yava).
7) As a result of a cold wind, the Buddha had a backache (prsthaduhkha).
8) For six months, he practiced austerities (duskaracaryd).
9) Having gone to a brahmin village (brdhmanagrdma) to beg for food, he received nothing and returned
with an empty bowl (dhautapdtrena).
Moreover, in winter (hemanta), in the eight nights that precede and follow [the full moon], 754 a cold wind
(srtavayu) smashed the bamboos (yenii). The Buddha took three robes (tricivara) to protect himself against
the cold. 755 During the oppressive heat, Ananda was behind him and fanned (vijati) the Buddha. 756 The
' 54 The characters ts'ien heou pa ye 'the eight nights thai precede and follow' translate, without a doubt, the Pali
ｅxpression /a I ' inch is found, e.g., in Vinaya, I, p. 31, 288; Majjhima, I, p. 79; Ahguttara, I, p. 136,
and which means 'during the nights that extend between the eight (aslitaka), i.e., between die eighth day before and the
eighth day after the full moon. (Cf. Rhys Davids-Stede, s.v. attaka).
'•'•' An allusion to an episode told in the Vinayas. According to its custom, the Mpps follows the Sarvastivadin Vinaya,
Che song liu, T 1435, k. 27, p. 195a: Knowing that the bhiksus had many robes and that these numerous garments
hindered their travel, the Buddha wanted to place a limit (maryada) on them. He said to Ananda: "I would like to travel to
the land of VaisalT." Ananda obeyed and followed the Buddha. It was in winter, during the nights [thai precede and
follow] the astaka; a cold wind was smashing the bamboos. Then the Buddha put on one robe (civard). During the Brsl
watch of the nighl (yamd), the Buddha walked in the desert. In the second watch, the Buddha was cold and said to
Ananda: "Give me a second robe." Ananda gave a second robe to the Buddha who put it on and continued to walk in the
desert. When the third watch came, the Buddha was cold and said to Ananda: "Give me a third robe." Ananda gave him a
third robe which he put on and continued to walk in the desert. Then he thought: "The bhiksus should have enough
robes." When the samgha came together, he said to the bhiksus: "Starting from today, I allow you to use three robes
(tricivara), no more and no less. In having less, that will be a duskita transgression; in having more, that will be a
nihsargika patayantika transgression."
The agreement in (he details (cold wind smashing the bamboo, etc.) reveals the close interconnection between the Mpps
and the Sarvastivadin Vinaya. The other Vinayas tell (he stoiy in somewhat the same way:
In the Mahishasaka Vinaya (Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 20, p. 136a), the Buddha was travelling between Vaisah and the
Capala cctiya: in the Dharmagupta Vinaya (Sscu fen liu, T 1428, k. 49, p. 856c-857a), he was spending the night in the
open air in a retreat, the name of which is not given. The Pali Vinaya, I, p. 288 (tr. Rh.D. - Oldenberg, II, p. 210-212) tells
that the Buddha, who had gone from Rajagrha to Vaisah, spent the night in the Gotamaka cctiya, seated in the open air.
Buddha therefore underwent the small sufferings of this world. If the Buddha has immense miraculous
power (rddhibala), if he dominates the trisashramahasahasralokadhatu and universes as numerous as the
sands of the Ganges in the ten directions (dis-), the east, south, west and north, in the four intermediate
directions (vidis-) and in the zenith and the nadir thus by his brilliance (dbhd), his color ( varna), his beauty
(sri) and his splendor (tejas-), why does he submit to the retribution for his sins (dpattivipdkayl
Answer. - 7) Dwelling among men, born from human parents, the Buddha has so much strength that one of
his fingers (angulisamdhi) surpasses the strength of a hundred thousand prabedakoti of white elephants
(pandaragaja); the power of his superknowledges (abhijna) is immense (apramdna), incalculable
(asamkyeya) and inconceivable (acintya). The son of king Suddhodana was revulsed by old age (jam),
sickness (vyddhi) and death (marana), left home (pravrajita) and attained Buddhahood. Can we say that
such a man will undergo the retribution of sins and be tormented by cold (sita), heat (usna), etc? If the
miraculous power of the Buddha is immense, if he possesses such miraculous qualities (acintyadharma),
how could he suffer from cold, heat, etc?
2) Furthermore, the Buddha has two bodies (kaya): a body of essence (dharmatdkdyd) and a body born
from father and mother (pitrmdtrjakdya). The essential body fills the ten directions of space; it is immense
(apramdna), infinite (ananta), handsome (ahliirupa), charming (prasddika), adorned with the major and
minor marks (laksandnuvyanjandlamkrtd), with immense rays (apramdnarasmi) and with immense voice
(apramanasvara); the assembly (samghd) thai listens to his preaching also fills space (this assembly is also
his essential body and is not [122a] visible to samsaric people. Ceaselessly he emits various bodies (kaya)
with various names (namari), of various births (janmasthdna), with various skillful means (upaya) to save
beings. He is always seeking to save everybody, never stopping for a moment. It is by means of this
essential body that the Buddha saves beings of the universes of the ten directions. To undergo the
retribution of sins is the business of the Buddha's body of birth (janmakdyabuddha). The Buddha of birth
body preaches the Dharma in stages as if it were a human body. Since there are two sorts of Buddha, it is
not a mistake that the Buddha experiences the retribution for wrongdoings.
3) Furthermore, when the Buddha attains Buddhahood, he eliminates all the bad dharmas (akusaladharma)
within himself and acquires all the good dharmas (kusaladharma). How then could he really suffer the
punishment of the bad dharmas? It is only out of compassion (anukampa) lor the beings of future
generations (anagatajaninasattva) that he resorts to this means (upaya) by pretending to suffer the
retribution of sins.
l-'cclinu cold, he put on four robes successively and not three as in the other sources. Nevertheless, he allow cd the monks
only three rolx (ticivaru): the sa the;// ti'iga and the antai Here arc extracts ii m thi m
Atlia I ' / dam ekacciyam uttai
ekacciyam antaravasakan ti.
'*6 xhe Buddha was often fanned by his disciples; the scene is always described in the following words: for example,
idanasataka, 11, p. 19 ' hi ii igin i i i grhih
vijd) rcspon li'i h | I I uimn 1 i| ;
bhagavato pitthito tliito oti hhaganatam vfjamano.
4) Furthermore, A ni lou teou (Aniruddha) received an immense reward for having given food to a
pratyekabuddha;757 whatever food he thought of he found at will. 758 How then could the Buddha, who
from one lifetime to the next has cut off his flesh (mdinsa), dug into his marrow (majja) to make a gift of it
to others, find nothiing when he begged for his food and returned with an empty bowl (dhautapdtrena)?
This is why we know that it is the skillful means of the Buddha who [pretends] to undergo retribution for
sins in order to save beings.
What is this skillful means {updyaj! In the future, in the fivefold assembly, there will be Buddhists
(Sdkyaputra) who, having acquired but little merit by their lack of generosity {ddnapunyahTnatvdi), will get
nothing when they go to beg for their means of livelihood (djiva); the lay people (avaddtavasana) will say
to them: "You who cannot obtain robes (dvara) and food (dhdra), you cannot cure your own sicknesses
(vyddhi)] How will you be able to find the Path (mdrgci) and care for the welfare of beings?" [Thanks to
this skillful means of the Buddha], the fivefold assembly will be able to answer: "We have no means of
existence, but that is of little importance; we have the meritorious qualities inherent in the practice of the
Path (mdrgacaird). Our actual suffering is the punishment for sins of our past lifetimes, but the reward for
our actual virtues will come later. Our great teacher, the Buddha himself, went into a brahmin village
'^ ' In a previous lifetime. Aniruddha had been a poor man named Annabhara (in Ihc Pali sources); one day when he was
cutting grass for his master Sumana (Pali sources) or gathering dead wood to earn his living (Chinese sources), he saw a
pratyekabuddha who was returning with an empty bowl and gave him some coarse broth. As a retribution for this
generosity, he was reborn seven Im imon th 1'rayaslri i i I \ i kravartin king seven times, and was finally
reborn in his last lifetime in a wealth) Sakya family.
Pali sources: Theragatha, v. 910-911 (tr. Rh. D., Brethren, p.329-330); Theragatha Comm., II, p. 65; Dhammapadatha,
IV, p. 120-121 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, III, p. 264-265).
Sanskrit sources: ICarmavibhahga, p. 66-67; Kosavyakhya, p. 424, 1. 29. Chinese sources: Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 66), k.
13, , p. 508c-509a (cf. P. Demieville in BEFEO, XXX, 1920, p. 161); Kou lai che che king, T 44, p. 829b; Tsa pao tang
king, T 203 (no. 50, p. 470c-471a (tr. Chavannes, Contes, III, p. 51); Kosha, IV, p. 190; P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 20, p. 99b;
King liu yi siang, T 2121, k. 13, p. 68a-b.
These various texts do not agree on the name of th iral 'I Idha: he i i'l d / / m ui osa khya
p. ilv urn I i i i in the Threragatha and the Dhammapadattha, Wou houan 'Without
misfortune' (Arishta) in the Kou lai che che king, P'i li tch'a (64 and 5; 75 and 6; 30 and 3) giving a possible Sanskrit
I'reksa) in the King liu yi siang. - According to the Tsa pao tsang king, this pratyekabuddha was the elder brother of the
future Aniruddha.
' 5 ° In this regard, see the following story told by the Dhammapadattha, I, p. 134 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, I, p. 231):
Aniruddha was raised in such luxury that he never heard the word: "There is no more" (n'atthi). one day when he was
.■I in U (guld) i nl' i Sakya youths, he lost the game and had to pay for the cakes ipuva). He asked his mother to
send him some. As he continued to lose, his mother's supply was exhausted and his mother had to say to him: "There are
no more cakes" (puvam n'atthi). Aniruddha, who did not know the phrase "There are no more", thought (hat it meant a
type of cake and he answered his mother: "Send me some 'there are no more' cakes." To make him understand, his mother
then sent him an empty golden bowl (tuccha sitvannapdti), but the protector deities of the city, wanting to spare
Aniruddha any deception, filled it with celestial cakes. After that, each time that Aniruddha asked for cakes, his mother
sent him an empty bowl which the gods filled up in passing.
There is a pale reflection of this charming little story in the I sa pais tsang king. T 203, , k. 4, p. 471a.
(brahmanagrama) to beg his food, got nothing, and returned with an empty bowl (dhautapdtrena); he also
was sick; at the massacre of the Sakyas, he suffered a headache. All the more reason that we, lesser people
with little merit (alpapunyd), [are exposed to the same inconveniences]." Hearing this answer, the lay
people will not have any further bad feelings and will grant the bhiksus the fourfold offering (caturvidhd
puja); the bhiksus will then enjoy peace (yogaksema) and, seated in dhyana, will find the Path. It is
therefore by skillful means and not in actuality that [the Buddha] undergoes [the retribution] for
wrongdoings.
Thus it is said in the P'i mo lo k'i king (VimalakTrtinirdesasutra)! 59 that the Buddha, dwelling in the land
of VaisalT, said to Ananda:
" My body feels a little feverish; I would like to have some cow's milk. Take my bowl (patra) and go to
beg for some milk."
Ananda took the bowl and went to the door of a vaisya. VimalakTrti himself was there and seeing Ananda
appear with a bowl, he asked: "Why are you standing there since morning with a bowl?"
Ananda answered: "The Buddha is a little sick; he needs some cow's milk. That is why I have come here."
"Wait a moment!" cried VimalakTrti, "Don't slander the Tathagata. The Buddha, as [122b] Bhagavat, has
gone beyond all bad dharmas (sari dkusaladharmasamatikrdnta). What sickness might he have? Take care
that the heretics (tfrthika) do not hear such rude words; they would scorn the Buddha and say: 'This
Buddha, who is unable to cure hs own illness, cannot save beings'."
Ananda replied: "That is not my intention. Personally, I have received a request from the Buddha and I
must get him some milk."
VimalakTrti answered: "Despite the Buddha's order, it is a skillful means (updyd). If he does use the world
of the five corruptions (pancakasdya), it is in order to deliver all beings through this fiction. In future
generations, when sick bhiksus will go to ask the lay people (avaddtavasana) for broths and medicines
(bhaisajya) and the lay people will say to them: 'You cannot cure yourselves, how could you cure others?',
the bhiksus will be able to say: 'If our great teacher himself was subject to sickness, then why should we
not be sick, we whose bodies are like the black mustard plant (arsapa)T And so the lay people will offer
the bhiksus broths and medicines and the bhiksus will enjoy peace (yogaksema) and tranquility, will
practice the Path. If heretic rsis can cure the illnesses of other people by medicinal herbs (osadhi) and
spells (mantra), then why would the Tathagata who is omniscient (sarvajna) be unable to cure his own
75y Vimalaklrtinirdesa, tr. by Tche k'ien, T 474, k. 1, p. 523b-c; tr. KumarajTva,T 475, k. 1, p. 542a; Tr. by Hiuan tsang,
T 476, k. 2, p. 564a-b. - This Vimalaki'rlinircl i ilso kn< in, in lan translation cnlitl I >
bstanpa, Mdo, XIV, 5 (cf. Csoma-Feer, p. 256; OKC, no. 843, p. 323) and some Sogdian fragments (ed. H. Reichelt, Die
i 'i l i i l 1, Heidelberg, 1928, p. 1-1 nn tatcd I v II i
toglulischcn I'iiMitakirtininlesasUtra, Leipzig, 1937), Some metrical versions of the chapter on illnesses have been sound
at Touen houang and even in our times the sutra has undergone some theatrical adaptations. Sec summary by P.
Demievillc in Hobogirin, p. 324.
sickness? Then take this milk in your bowl in silence and be careful lest the unbelievers (pasanda) should
learn about it."
This is why we know that the sicknesses of the Buddha are pretenses coming from skillful means and are
not real sicknesses; it is the same for the [pretended] sins that are their cause. This is why the sutra says
that the Buddha dominates everything by his brilliance, his color, his berauty and his splendor.
ACT VII
Sutra: Then the Bhagavat made his ordinary body {prakrtymatmabhdva) appear to all the beings of the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu. At that moment, the Suddhavasakayika, Brahmakayika,
Paranirmitavasavartin, Nirmanaral [usita i un i li trim • ' i ihaiajika gods760, as well as the
manusya and the amanusya of the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, bearing heavenly flowers {divya
puspa), celestial garlands {divya malya), heavenly unguents {divya vilepana), celestial powders {divya
curna), celestial lotuses, blue {nUotpala), red {kokanada), white (pundanka), purple (padma), and leaves
of heavenly trees {tamalapattra), gathered around the Buddha {Atha khalu bhagavan punar eva yadrk
trisdhasramahd.sd/icisrcilokcicllidtciu sattvdndm atmabhdvam prdkrtam upacla ivdmdsa Atha khalu
suddhdvasakmayikd (level hrahmakdyikds ca paraiiirmitavasavariiiias ca nirmitinaratayas ca tusitds ca
yamas ca trayastrimsaO ca cdturanilididjakdvikds ca ye ca trisdhasramahdsdhasralokadhatau
manusyaamanu: ; ,\u : , ca ie puspamdlyavilepanacurndni clivydni nTlotpalakokanapunclarikapadmani divyani
ca tamalapattra ni grhitvd yena tathdgatas leuopasamkrantah).
Sastra: Why does the Buddha make his ordinary body {prakrtydtmabhdvd) appear to all the beings of the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu?
Answer. - 7) Wishing to preach the Mahaprajnaparamita, the Buddha first enters the Samadhirajasamadhi.
The wheels on the soles of his feet emit rays and [the other parts of his body], including the usnisa, shine
forth with brilliant light. Just as at the end of a kalpa, at the time of the great fire, the mountains such as
Sumeru parvataraja catch on fire and are successively consumed by the fire, so the Buddha's rays fill the
entire trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu and reach to the universes of the ten directions as numerous as the
sands of the Ganges, which all were illumined by them. The beings who saw these rays attained [122c]
'" u These are the gods of the kamadhatu and mpadhatu. In order to undestand the explanations that will follow, one must
bear in mind the division of the gods into these two realms:
ICamadhalu serves as dwelling for six groups of gods: Calurmaharajika, Trayastrimsa, Yama. I Usita. Nirmanaral i ami
! u inirmil ^ > iiun
Rupadhatu wilh il four dh ma rv< id . Inn plai foi <w n groups of gods.
i' i dh in i I Inn ikayika, Bi i'iiii i ui hil >i ih ibi iiun n i
Second dhyana: 1'anttabha. Apramanabha, Abhasvara.
Third dhyana: Panttasubha, Apramanasubha, Subhakrlsna.
I'otirth dhyana: Anabhraka. I'linyaprasava. Brhatphala and (lie live Suddhavasikas: Abrha, Atapa. Sudrsa. Sndarsana.
Akanistha.
See the comparative study of the sources in Kirfcl A i •■,■ i ;, hit I , Inder, p. 191-192.
anuttarasamyaksambodhi in the end. Therefore, to preach the Prajnaparamita, the Buddha first manfests
his miraculous power (rddhibala).
2) The Buddha smiles through all the pores of his skin (sarvaromakupa).
3) The Buddha emits his ordinary light (prakrtiprabha), namely, his aureole which is one armspan in width
(yydma).
4) He covers the trisasramahasahasralokadhatu with his tongue (jihva) and begins to smile.
5) He enters into the Simhavikrisitasamadhi, and the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu shakes in six ways.
6) Seated on the simhasana, the Buddha manifests his light, his splendor, his color and his lofty form. By
this miraculous power (rddhibala), he touches beings profoundly and those who have faith reach
anuttarasamyaksambodhi.
7) And finally here, for those who have doubts, he shows his ordinary body (prakrtyatmabhava) and those
who hesitate then attain deliverance by faith (sraddhavimukti) and say to one another: "What I am seeing
now is the real body of the Buddha." By the power of the Buddha, these people of the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, seeing the ordinary body of the Buddha, come near him without
confusion; and then the beings of the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu, full of joy (dnanda), cry out: "This
is truly the body of the Buddha." Indeed, the Buddha always had this body, when he was born, when he
became Buddha and when he turned the wheel of Dharma. This is why beings say that that is truly the
body of the Buddha.
Question. - What is meant by the Suddhavasika gods and the Brahmaloka gods?
Answer. - The fourth dhyana has eight stages (bhumi):7 61 five stages are the abodes (sthdna) of the
anagamins and are called the pure abodes (suddhavasa);! 62 three stages are the shared abode of ordinary
people (prthagjana) and saints (drya). Beyond these eight stages are the abodes of the bodhisattvas of the
ten bhumis (dasuhhiimihocllusattva): these are also called pure abodes (siiddluivdsa), [The Suddhavasikas]
are called Mahesvaradevaraja.
The gods of the Brahmaloka have three places of birth (janmasthana):763 i) the heaven of the
Brahmakayikas, the birthplace of the lesser Brahmas; ii) the heaven of the Brahmapurohitas, the birthplace
of the noble Brahmas; Hi) the heaven of the Mahabrahmas, also called the birthplace of intermediate
dhyana (dhydndntara). 7 64
Question. - Renunciation I vairagya) is the same [in all the Brahmas]; why do they have abodes of different
quality?
761 Kosa, III, p. 2.
762 p or these five classes of anagamin: antaraparinirvayin, etc., see DIgha, 111, p. 237; Kosa, III, p. 38; VI, p. 210 and
especially p. 223 225.
763 Kosa, III, p. 2-3.
764 Kosa, VIII, p. 180-183.
Answer. - The first dhyana [where they dwell] is of three kinds: lesser (avard), medium (madhya) and
higher (agra). If they cultivate the lesser dhyana, they are reborn as Brahmakayikas; if they cultivate the
medium dhyana, they are reborn as Brahmapurohitas; if they cultivate the higher dhyana, they are reborn as
Mahabrahmas. It is the same for the development of lo\int> 1 indn < i hdvcuiu). Thus the teacher
Miao yen (Sunetra) said: "I have preached the Dharma to people and they have all been reborn among the
Brahmakayikas; I should not be reborn in the same place as my disciples; I am going to develop a higher
loving-kindness (uttara maitri)."765 because he had developed higher loving-kindness, he was reborn
1 11 n i'i hi 'i ii n n I | Iim \ i i i i i > ive\ yan 'ti. - Tchong a han,
T 26 (no. 8), k. 2, p. 420c9; ibid. k. 30, p. 619cl0; P'i p'o cha, T 1545, k. 82, p. 425a20.
nil u i particularl kno nisi < lili the J i uiyodu) i ncl ih / /
1) The story of Sunetra is told by the Buddha at the end of some versions of the Saptasuryodayasutra: a. Ahguttara, IV,
p. 103-106; b. Tchong a han, T 26 (no, 8), k. 2, p. 429b-c;
c. Ta tche tou louen, T 1509, k. 31, p. 290b-c; d. Sa po to sou li yu nai ye king, T 30, p. 812c;
e. Extract of an anonymous sutra, probably a version of a Saptasuryodayasutra in the Vibhasha, T 1545, k. 82, p. 424c-
425a.
"In times past, there was a teacher named Sunetra, a ferryman (firthakard), who had renounced pleasures (kdmesu
vitaragah). He had many hundreds of disciples to whom he taught the doctrine of participating in the world of Brahma
(brahmalokasahavyata). Those who had completely understood his doctrine were reborn after death in the realm of
Brahma (brahmalokd); the others succeeded at least in being reborn among the gods of the kamadhatu or in noble
families. Not wanting to be reborn in the same world as his students, Sunetra meditated for seven years on the mind of
loving-kindness ( i ill in! to thi practice, for seven cosmic periods he avoided returning here and had a
Ion hi of i birth unon (In bli u id (In lahabrahmana iln i i iki in i In ill i a cakravrtin king.
Nevertheless, he did not escape from birth, old age and sickness because he had not understood the four noble
Jli u i i i i i I 1 i ii n'V i il ni i / i 'iJ J I i i i / 'l
We may note that Sunetra is not mentioned in the Saptasuryodayasutra of the Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 34, p. 735b-
738a, or in (he extract which the Shikshasamuchchaya , p. 247, gives of this sutra.
Whereas the Ahguttara and the Tchong a han do not establish any link between Sunetra and the Buddha, the Ta tche
tou louen (k. 1, p. 290c) and the Sa po to sou li yu nai ye king , p. 812cl8, have the Buddha say: "This tathagata
Sunetra of times gone by was not a pratyekabuddha; he was none oilier than rue." Similarly the Kosa, IX, p. 271, and
the Kosavyakhya, p. 710, cite a Saptasuryodayasutra where the Buddha says: "In the past, the teacher Sunetra was
myself' (Sup ryoda tre 'yu i hliagu hi hahhureti)
2) The Sunetrasutra which is in Ahguttara, III, p. 371-372; ibid., IV, P. 135-136; Tchong a han, T 26 (no. 130), k. 30,
p. 619b-c, lists six teachers (satthd), ferrymen, completely renounced (yitardgd), having several hundreds of disciples
1 i horn they taught the doctrin if participating in Ih odd of Brahma ( / > u / I nil i or instill
them would be a grave den H in ( ' huni < i) fhese six teachers are Sunetra, .VI ugapakkha, Arancmi, Kuddalaka,
Hatthipala Jotipala.
Buddhaghosa docs not comment on this passage, but 'these six teachers rue probabh earlier births of the Buddha.
Actually, Sunetra appears among others individuals in the iisis of Jatakas of (he Buddha: Raslrapalaparipriccha, p. 23,
1. 16; Lahkavatara, p. 141; Karmavibhanga, p. 36-37, where Sunetra appeara as an incarnation of
i !'ii I [ i li no her Ilia Ih Buddh uptusi liiiun i 'v/iiexah aham sa
hliiksavas teua kaleiia Saryausadliiyaidyarajo 'hli'ut.
among the Mahabrahmas. Moreover, it is by virtue of a mind of supreme purity (paramavisuddhicitta) that
one is reborn among the Mahabrahmas.
Question. - When there are four dhyanas, why do we speak here only of the first [: abode of the Brahma
gods] and of the last [: abode of the Suddhavasikas] and not say anything about the second or the third?
Answer. - 7) We speak of the first dhyana because renunciation (yairagyd), the gate to it, is difficult [to
practice]; we speak of the fourth because its subtle beauty is difficult to obtain (durlabha). Nothing is said
of the intermediate dhyanas because they are easy to enter.
2) Moreover, the brahmaloka is the start of the form realm (rupadhatu), whereas the fourth dhyana is its
summit; this is why they are mentioned in particular (prthak).
3) Moreover, many are the people who know the Brahma gods but do not know the other gods. This is why
we speak here only of the Brahma gods. We [123a] also speak of the Suddhavasika gods who, out of
compassion (anukampa) for beings, always invite the Buddhas.
4) Moreover, when the Buddha preaches, the sound of the Dharma (dharmasvara) reaches as far as the
Brahma gods. When the Buddha attained Buddhahood, these gods sent the news to the Suddhavasikas.
This is why the first and the last [class of gods of rupadhatu] are mentioned without saying anything about
the two intermediate classes.
5) Moreover, the Brahma gods who are close to kamadhatu, [dwelling just above it,] and the Suddhavasika
gods who are the chiefs of rupadhatu should be mentioned here. Thus, when a gatekeeper (dvarapald)
knows that a guest (dgantuka) has arrived to see his master, the latter knows it also; the intermediaries
being of no importance, they are not spoken of.
6) Finally, the second dhyana is characterized by great joy (mahapnti) and the third dhyana by great bliss
(mahasukha). As joy and bliss imply carelessness, they are not spoken of.
Question. -What is meant by Paranirmitavasavartin?766
Answer. - The gods who take hold of and enjoy desirable objects created by others are called
Paranirmitavasavartin 'Using that which has been created by another'.
The Nirmanarati gods create the five sense objects themselves and enjoy them. This is why they are called
Nirmanarati 'Enjoying that which they have themselves created'.
The Tusita gods are the satisfied gods.
The Yamas are the happy (subhagd) gods.
The second category [of gods of rupadhatu] is that of the Trayastrimsa or Thirty-two gods.
s Sunetra is a verse of the Saundarananda, XI, 57 which M. Johnson considers to be an
interpolation: maitraya saptavarsikya ... garbhavasam upeyivaii.
Along with Asama, Sunetra was the firsl disciple of the Buddha Sobhita: cf. Nidanakatha, p. 35; Buddhavamsa, VII, v.
21.
766 For these definitions, see DIgha, III, p. 218.
The first class, starting from the bottom, is that of the Caturmaharajikas or the Four Great Kings.
Mount Sumeru has a height of 84,000 yojanas; at its summit is the city of the Trayastrimsas.767 Beside
Mount Meru is a mountain called Yugandhara, 42,000 yojanas high;768 it has four peaks on each of which
is a city inhabited by a group of Caturmaharajikas. The lands of the other gods, Yamas, etc., made of seven
jewels (saptaratnamaya), are situated in space (akasci) where they are supported by wind. 769 and so on up
to the Pure Abodes (sudddhavdsa).
Seeing the Buddha's body (buddhakaya), its purity (visuclclhi) and its great rays (maharasmi). these gods
offer him aquatic and terrestrial flowers {jalasthalajdni puspani). Of all the terrestrial flowers, jasmine
(mallikd) is the most beautiful; of all the aquatic flowers, blue lotus (nilotpala) is the most beautiful.
Whether they grow on trees or on reeds, these are flowers having different colors and different perfumes.
Each holding a celestial flower (divyapuspa), they gather around the Buddha. These flowers have a
beautiful color, a rich perfume; they are soft (manjii) and flexible; this is why they are used as offerings.
Question. - What is a celestial flower?
Answer. - The celestial flower is one the perfume of which goes against the wind (prativdtam vdti).770
Celestial garlands (divyamdlya) remain suspended above the Buddha; celestial unguents (divyavilepana)
are spread out on the ground before the Buddha; celestial powders {divyacurna) are scattered above the
Buddha.
Question. - Celestial lotuses (divyapadma) are blue (nild), red (lohita) pink (rakta) or white (avadata).
Why are they not yellow {pita)l
Answer. - Because yellow is an attribute of fire (tejo peksate) and fire is foreign to aquatic flowers. These
precious celestial lotuses have a stem (dandd) of jade (yaiduryd), a corolla (yedika) of diamond (yajrd),
leaves (pattra) of golden sand from the Jambu river (jdmbunadasuvarna). They are tender and perfumed.
Taking also leaves from the celestial tree (tamdla or Xanthochymus pictorius), they gather around the
Buddha.
Question. - The gods can get celestial flowers (divypuspa) as offerings, but how can men (manusya) and
amanushya get them?
Answer. - Thanks to the bases of his miraculous power (rddhibala), the Buddha emits great rays and the
earth trembles in six ways; the gods rain down all sorts [123b] of marvellous flowers that fill the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu as offerings to the Buddha. The manusya and amanusya can gather these
flowers and offer them in turn.
767 Kosa, III, p. 161.
768 Ibid., p. 141-143.
'"" These are the vimdiia "aerial dwellings': Kosa, III, p. 164.
' '" Among the Trayastrimsa gods, the odor of the magnolia flower (koviddra) called 'parijataka' is propagated for a
hundred yojanas with the wind, for fifty yojanas against the wind. By contrast, the smell of flowers in the human world
does not go against the wind. - Cf. Kosa, III, p. 162-163.
Moreover, it is customary in India to call celestial (divya) anything that is beautiful. Even though the
flowers of the manusya and amanusya do not come from the heavens, they can, nevertheless, be described
as 'celestial' because of their beauty. Thus it is not wrong to say that the manusya and the amanusya offer
celestial flowers.
Sutra: They scatter {avakiranti sma) [all these offerings], from celestial flowers (divyapuspa) to leaves of
the celestial tree (tamalapattra), over the Buddha.
Question. - Why do they scatter these flowers on the Buddha?
Answer. - As a sign of respect (satkdra) and as offering ipujd). Moreover, when the Buddha's rays shine
forth and they see the Buddha from afar, they feel great joy (anandd) and want to pay homage to him; this
is why they scatter flowers on him. Finally, the Buddha is the supreme field of merit (paramapunyaksetra)
in the threefold world (traidhdtuka); this is why they strew fowers on him.
Sutra: These precious scattered flowers form a great belvedere high in the firmament having the
dimensions of the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu (Tais cdvakFiiiaratnapuspair upary antarikse
irisdhasramalidsdliasralokadlidtupramdnam ckasn kutdgdrain samsthiiam ahluit).
Sdstra: Question. - How can [these few flowers] form such a belvedere in the firmament?
Answer. - These flowers that have been scattered were not numerous, but nevertheless they form a great
belvedere. This teaches beings that a small cause (hetu) has great effects (phala).
Question.- How does this belvedere rest in the air without falling?
Answer. - By his miraculous power (rddhibala), the Buddha wishes to show beings that the Buddha is a
field of merit (punyaksetra), that the reward that he has received is imperishable and that even after having
become Buddha, his merits are indestructible.
Sutra: From this belvedere hang garlands and bouquets of flowers of different colors (mixture of the five
colors): these bouquets and garlands fill the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu (tatas ca kutdgdrdt tdni
pattaddmdni puspaddiiuliii misravarndiu lamhanh una <ai ca ouspaddmbhih pattaddmahhi cdyam
trisdhasramahdsd/iasro lokaclhdtuh paripurni 'bhut).
Question. - If the Buddha himself has miraculous power {rddhibala), why is it necessary that the flowers
scattered [by beings] are transformed into a belvedere?
Answer. - The Buddha wishes that beings have pure faith (sraddhavisuddhi); when these people see their
offerings change into a belvedere, they feel great joy (pramudita) and as a result of this joy, they gain great
merit (punya).
Sutra: From the enchantment of these bouquets of flowers and garlands, the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu takes on a golden color; and it is the same in all the Buddha-universes of
the ten directions as numerous as the sands of the Ganges (tais ca puspaddmahhih pattaddmahhis cdyam
trisdhasramahdsdhasro lokadhdtuh suvarnavarnena affvasobhata. ye ca dasasi diksu
gangdnadfvdlukopamd lokadhdtava Ic sphutdvahhdsitas cabhuvan).
Sastra: Some say: "The noble cakravartin king is the chief of four universes [i.e., of a caturdvTpaka],
Brahmadevaraja is the chief of a chiliocosm (sdhasralokadhdtu), the Buddha is the chief of a
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu." That is not correct, for the creations (nirmdna) of the Buddha extend to
universes of the ten directions as numerous as the sands of the Ganges.
Sutra: Then, among the beings of the in rama isahasralokadhatu and of the ten directions, [123c]
each had the impression that the Buddha was preaching the Dharma for them alone and not for the other
people (atha k/uilu n n ' uihclscllu >/> '' tau dasasu diksu ca tesam sattvandm
ckaikasyaitad ahhut mama purato ndnycsdm tathdgato dharmam dcsayatfti).
Sastra: Question. - The Buddha appeared simultaneously in the same form to all the beings of the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu and the ten directions; how then does each of these beings see a Buddha
seated face-to-face and preaching the Dharma?771
Answer. - The miraulous power (rddhibala) of the Buddha is twofold: 1) seated in the same place, he
preaches the Dharma in such a way that all beings see him from far away (duratah) and hear from from far
away; 2) staying in the same place, he preaches the Dharma in such a way that each being in particular sees
''1 This is a classical miracle and the Buddha is not alone in being able to accomplish it. Thus, in the
JanavasabhasuUanta (Digha, 11. p. 21 I -212). Brahma Sanamkumara, going lo visit the Tavatimsa gods, created 33 forms
of himself (tettiinsc attahliave uhliiiiininiinitva), each silting on the couch of one of the 33 gods, and he is expressing
himself in such a was that each god has the impression that the form is on his own couch and is speaking to him alone (yo
'yam mama pallanke so yam eko va bhasatiti).
a Buddha faceing himself (tatpuratah) preaching the Dharma. In the same way, at daybreak (suryodaya),
the shadows (chdyd) seem to be a mass of water.
Moreover, all beings are not the same: some find i lilh (visudclha radclhd) by seeing the Buddha's
body fill the trisahasramahasasralokadhatu; others find pure faith, bliss (siiklui) and joj (mudita) in seeing
a particular Buddha preaching the Dharma face-to-face: this is why the Buddha preaches the Dharma
facing each one of them.
ACT VIII
Sutra: Then, seated on the lion-seat, the Bhagavat smiled with joy, and the light of this smile illumined the
whole trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu. Thanks to this light, the beings of the
trisahasramahasasralokadhatu saw the Buddhas and the samghas in universes of the east as numerous as
the sands of the Ganges; [conversely], the beings of the universes of the east, universes as numerous as the
sands of the Ganges, saw the Buddha Sakyamuni and his great assembly which were in the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu. And it was the same for the south, the west and the north, the four
intermediate directions and the directions of the zenith and the nadir (atha khalu bhagavdms tasminn eva
simhdsane nisannah punar evasmitam akarot. yena smitdvabhdsendyam
trisdhasramahdsdhasralokadhdtuh sphuto 'bhut. vena ea smitdvahhdsena ye ca
trisdsramahdsm isrcilokcicl/icita vcl < urvasvdni < g Jncic ,•'■■11 lokadhdtusu
buddhdn bhagavat ah pasyanti sma sasrdvakasamghdn, tasydii purvasydin diss gaiigdnadivdlukopamesu
lokadhdtusu ye sattvds te sarve 'sminn \ ' il lasralokadhdtau bud an Sdkyamumm
pasyanti sma amardhani malulsamghena. evani daksinasydm disi paseimdydin uttarasydm eatasrisuvidiksv
urdhvam adhah cdbhut).
Sdstra: Question. - Several times already, previously, the Buddha has emited rays (rasmi); why does he
again emit them now?
Answer. - Above, when he emitted rays, he had a particular reason each time as we have noted. But up to
now the great assemblies were invisible to one another; now, by the miraculous power of his rays
(rasmirddhibald), the Buddha allows all the great assemblies of these different universes to see one
another.
Question. - The great arhat, the ayusmat A ni lou teou (Aniruddha), who was the first of the Buddha's
disciples to possess the divine eye (divyacaksukdndm agrah), ordinarily saw a chiliomicrocosm
{sdhasracudikalokadhdtu) and exceptionally a dichiliomesocosm (dvisdhasramadhyamalokadhdtu). A
great pratyekabuddha normally sees a dichiliomesocosm and exceptionally a trichiliomegacosm
(trisdhasramahdsdhasralokadhdtu).}lov/ can all beings here see the Buddha-universes of the east,
universes as numerous as the sand of the Ganges?
Answer. - It is the miraculous power of the Buddha which allows them to see so far; it is not due to the
power of the beings themselves. It is accepted that arhats, pratyekabuddhas, etc., also have an unlimited
field of vision by the power of the Buddha. Thus, when a noble cakravartin king comes flying, his entire
army with its retinue of elephants and horses follow him in the air. Here, by the Buddha's miraculous
power, beings, distant as they may be, see one another. Moreover, by the power of the concentration of
wisdom (prajndsamddhi), even those who do not have the divine eye (divyacaksus) see the ten directions.
The Buddha's eye [124a] (caksus ) and ear (srotra) are free of obstacles (avarana). In the same way that all
beings attain samadhi, the divine eye (divyacaksus) and the divine ear (divyasotra) by themselves (svatah)
at the end of a kalpa at the time of the great conflagration, so the Buddha, by his miraculous power
(rddhibala), causes all beings to have the ability to see at a distance.
[The sutra says]: "Then the Bhagavat, seated on the lion-seat, smiled with joy." We have spoken previously
of this smile; here we are content to explain what has not yet been explained.
Question. - The fact that beings of this place see yonder direction over there is due to the Buddha
Sakyamuni's miraculous power; but whose is the power by virtue of which beings of yonder place see this
direction here?
Answer. - Again it is the Buddha Sakyamuni's power that allows those beings to see our
trisahasramahasashasralokadhatu and to contemplate the Buddha Sakyamuni with all his assemblies
(samgha). It is the same also for the south, the west and the north, the four intermediate directions and the
directions of the zenith and the nadir.
CHAPTER XV: THE ARRIVAL OF THE BODHISATTVAS
OF THE TEN DIRECTIONS
ACT IX
Sutra: Then in the east, beyond universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges and at the limit of these
universes, there is a universe called To pao (RatnavatT) where there is a Buddha called Pao tse (Ratnakara)
who is now teaching the Prajnaparamita to the bodhisattva-mahasattvas (Atha khalu purvasyam disi
gahganadivdlukopamdn lokadhdtuu atikramya tebhyo yah sarvavasdniko lokadhdtu Ratndvati ndma tatra
Ratndkaro ndma tathdgatas tisthati. sa imam era prajiidparamiidm hodhisattvandm mahdsattvdndm
dharmam desayati).
Sdstra: Question. - It has been said by the Buddha that the universes are innumerable (apramana) and
infinite (ananta); how can you speak of a universe situated at the limits of the universe (sarvavasdniko
lokadhatuh)! To talk in this way is to fall into the [heretical theory] of a finite world (anatavan lokah). If
the universes were limited [in number], the total number of beings would [at length] be exhausted.
Actually, each one of the innumerable Buddhas saves an immense (aprameya) and incalculable
(asamkhyeya) number of beings and introduces them into nirvana without residue (nirupadhisesanirodha);
if there were not always new beings, their number would finally be exhausted.
Answer. - The Buddhist sutras do indeed say that the universes are infinite in number, but this is a
statement of a practical order (updyokti) and not a true doctrine. In the same way, although the saint (chen
here translates 'tathagata') does not exist [after death], in practice (updyena) we say that the saint exists
[after death]. All of this is in the fourteen difficult questions [on which the Buddha refused to comment].
To say that the world is finite (antavdn lokah) or to say that the world is infinite (anantavdn lokah) are
both wrong vie\ I hydd sti) If the universes were infinite [in number], the Buddha would not possess
omniscience (sarvajndna), lor omniscience is a universal wisdom from which nothing can escape; if the
universes were infinite, some things would escape him. on the other hand, if the universes were finite in
number, you would run up against the difficulty you raised above [in your question]. Therefore both
solutions are wrong. Why? Because by being based on the infinite, one destroys the finite. The RatnavatT
universe is not the limit of all the universes, but the Buddha Sakyamuni abides in the extreme limit so that
beings may be saved. Similarly, when one abides at the boundary of a country, one does not claim to be
abiding at the boundary of JambudvTpa. If the universes were infinite, the Buddha would not be
omniscient; his wisdom being immense, he must know everything, for 'if the letter is big, the envelope also
must be big.'
Question. - This universe is called RatnavatT 'Rich in Jewels'. There are two kinds of jewels: the [124 b]
substantial jewel (dhanaratna) and the dharma jewel (dharmaratna). What are these jewels the abundance
of which merits the name RatnavatT for this universe?
Answer. - Both kinds of jewels occur in this universe. Furthermore, the many bodhisattvas [who inhabit it]
are also jewels who illumine the nature of things (dharmatd). [Note by KumarajTva: These jewels, namely
the great bodhisattvas, serve as a diadem (ratiuimiikiitti); in the center of this diadem we see the Buddha
and we penetrate the nature of all dharmas]. As these jewels are numerous, the universe in question is
called 'Rich in Jewels' (ratnavati).
There is a Buddha there called Ratnakara 'Jewel Mine'. He is so called because he includes the pure
faculties (andsaravendriyd), the powers (bald), the Path of bodhi and the other jewels of the Dharma
(dharmaratna).
Question. - If that is so, all the Buddhas should be called Ratnakara. Why reserve the name Ratnakara for
this Buddha alone?
Answer. - All the Buddhas have these jewels, but this Buddha is the only one to take his name from them.
In the same way, Mi Id (Maitreya) is called 'Loving-kindness' (maitreya) although all the Buddhas have the
same loving-kindness (maitri), but Maitreya is the only one to have this as his name.
Furthermore, the Buddha Ratnapuspa was named Ratnapuspakumara 'Prince of Precious Flowers' because
at his birth, all the extremities of his body were adorned with various flowers of brilliant colors. The
Buddha DTpamkara was called DTpamkarakumara, 'Prince, Lighter of Lamps' because when he was born,
all the extremities of his body were like lamps. When he became Buddha, he was still called DTpamkara. It
is the same for the Buddha Ratnakara: he was called 'Jewel Mine' because, when he was born, many
precious substances appeared, whether produced from the earth or whether the gods rained down a whole
collection of them.
OBJECTIONS TO THE PLURALITY OF BUDDHA
Objector. - only the Buddha Sakyamuni exists; the Buddhas of the ten directions (dasadigbuddha) do not
exist. Why?
Argument number 1. - The Buddha Sakyamuni with his immense power (apramdnabala) and his immense
superknowledges (apramdndbhijnd) is capable of saving all beings [by himself); there is no need of other
Buddhas. It is said' '^ that Ananda, absorbed with one -pointed mind (ekacittena manasikurva), said to
' ' I [Lamotte] do not know where the following story was taken from, but the miracle of the multiplication of the
Buddhas which the Mpps tells here and will tell again in two other places (k. 21, p. 220b, and k. 34, p. 312b) reproduces
in several details the Great Miracle at Sravasti. The main sources are, in Pali, the SumahgalavilasanI, I, p. 57; the
Dhammapadattha, III, p. 213-216 (tr. Burlingame, Legends, III, p. 45-47) and the Jataka, IV, p. 264-265; in Chinese, the
.Ylulasarvastivadin Vinaya, ICsudrakavastu, T 1451, k. 26, p. 332a b: parallel Sanskrit lexis: Divyavadana, p. 161 162 (tr.
Burnouf, Introduction, p. 162-164). The reproductions of the Great Miracle on the monuments at Bharhut, Gandhara.
Benares, Ajanta, Ylagadha and Konkan have been minutely described by Fouchcr. Beginnings of Buddhist Art, p. 147-
185. According to the Divya, the Great Miracle at Sravasti is broken down into two parts:
1) The twin mil iclc (yamai tihdrya) I 'i Uli iga it rosi up into the an and appeared there in the four positions
(irydpatha). walking, sitting, standing and lying down. He attained the element of lire (tejodhatu) and his body emitted
himself: "The Buddhas of the past, Ratnapuspa, Dfpamkara, etc., were all born in marvelous times; their
life was very long and they saved all beings. Then how could the present Buddha, born at a bad time and of
short life, save all beings?" These were the questions he asked himself. At dawn (suryodaya), the Buddha,
who knew Ananda's thoughts, entered into the Daybreak samadhi (suryodayasamddhi); then he emitted
rays (rasmi) from all the pores of his skin (romakupa). Like the sun, he emitted rays the brilliance of which
spread successively over JambudvTpa, the four continents (caturdvipaka), the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu and finally over all the innumerable universes of the ten directions
(dasadiglokadhatu). Then the Bhagavat sent forth from his navel (ndbhi) a precious lotus (ratnapuspa)
described by the following stanzas:
The stem (danda) is of green jade (vaidurya),
The petals (pattra), a thousand in number, are of yellow gold.
The corolla (vedika) is of diamond (vajra)
The trimming is of coral (musaragalva).
The stem is flexible, without the usual curves,
Its height is ten armspans (vyama);
[124 c] Having the color of green jade,
various glows. Flames escaped from the lower part of his body and from the upper part (here came a rain of cold water
i i \ i irimat ka \ i i i 1 1 li i Im i If kn ill i ii ii n ii 1 11
power that he was thus manifesting is shared by all the sraval i i i Hun h .id Ii iv< iln i<
seen that several saints have accomplished this twin miracle.
2) The Great Miracle proper. - This miracle is higher than any human can perform (uttara
iia ' Yddliarinai ■ hipi itiharyam). The DTvya, p. 162, describes it in the followjng way: Nam uim > ,
i " i ' m visarjayanti
"The two naga kings, Manila and Upananda, created a golden thousand peiailcd lotus the size of a chariot wheel with a
diamond stem and came to present it to the Bhagavat who seated himself crosslcgged on the corolla of this lotus, body
upright in full awareness. Above this lotus, he created another and on this lotus, the Bhagavat was likewise seated. And
similar!), in front, behind, all around him, appeared masses of blessed Buddhas, created by himself, rising up to the
Akanistha heaven, forming a buddha-assembly created by the Blessed one. Some of these magical Buddhas were
walking, some standing, some sitting, some lying down; some were attaining the fire element and producing miraculous
flames, light rays and flashes of lightning: some w ere asking questions and some were replying." (tr. Burnout).
There is a striking similarity between the Great Miracle of Sravasd and that of the multiplication of Buddhas told here by
the Mpps. However, there is a difference in detail that is worth mentioning. At Sravasti, the central lotus is created and
brought by Nanda and Upananda and in most of the reproductions, the two naga kings can be seen holding the stem of a
lotus. In the acount of the Mpps, there is no mention of the two naga kings: (he original lotus and the adventitious lotuses
arise from the Buddha's navel. Without a doubt, the Buddhist legend has been contaminated by the myth of the birth of
Brahma who appears seated cross-legged on a golden thousand pcialled lotus arising from Visnu's navel.
It is planted in the Buddha's navel.
Its leaves are broad and long,
White in color, striped with marvelous colors.
Infinitely precious ornament,
The thousand petalled lotus.
This marvelous lotus of such beautiful colors
Emerges from the Buddha's navel.
on the four petals of its corolla
Precious seats shine with divine light.
on each of these seats sits a Buddha;
one would call them four golden mountain summits.
Their light is equal as if one.
From the navels of these four Buddhas
Comes a magnificent precious lotus.
on each lotus there is a seat,
on each seat there is a Buddha.
From the navels of all these Buddhas,
Come in turn precious lotuses.
on each lotus there is a seat;
on each seat there is a Buddha.
These successive creations
Rise up to the Suddhavasa heaven;
Whoever would like to know how far
Will have to resort to the following comparison:
An enormous rock
Having the size of a high mountain,
Thrown from the height of the Suddhavasa
And falling straight down without meeting any obstacle
Would take eighteen thousand three hundred
And eighty-three years
To land on the earth; ' '•>
That is the number of years it would take.
In the intermediate space,
Emanated Buddhas, placed in the center,
Spread out a brilliant light
That surpasses the fires of the sun and moon.
Some Buddhas have bodies streaming with water,
Others have bodies emitting fire; ' ™
Sometimes they appear to walk,
Sometimes they are seated in silence.
Some Buddhas go to beg their food
To make a gift of it to beings.
Sometimes they preach the Dharma,
Sometimes they shoot out rays.
Sometimes they go to visit the three bad destinies
And the hells of water, the shadows and fire. ' '^
' '■' This is the number given by the Jnanaprasthana, cf. Beal, Catena, p. 83.
Their warm breath warms up the cold water,
Their rays illumine the shadows,
In the fiery places, they breathe out a cooling breeze,
Skillfully they calm the torments [of the damned].
By pacifying them and calming them
They save them by the bliss of the Dharma (dluiiiiuisukhu).
By all of these skillful means (updyd) [these apparitional Buddhas], all at the same time, wanted to save the
innumerable beings of the ten directions. When they had saved them, they returned to their starting point
and re-entered the navel of the Buddha.
[125 a] Then the Bhagavat, coming out of the Suryodhayasamadhi, asked Ananda: "Did you see the power
of my abhjna during this samadhi?" Ananda relied: "Yes, I saw it", and added: "If it is sufficient for the
Buddha to appear for just one day in order that the disciples converted by him (yineyasrdvakd) fill space
(dkdsa), what would not the number of those converted amount to if he remained in the world for eighty
years?"
This is why we say that one single Buddha, whose qualities (guna) and miraculous power (rddhibala) are
immense, suffices to convert the ten directions without the need for other Buddhas.
Argument number 2. - Furthermore, the Buddha said: "A woman cannot be a cakravartin king,
Sakradevendra, or Maradevaraja, or Brahmadevaraja. Two cakravartin kings cannot reign together at the
same place. Similarly, with regard to the Bhagavat with ten powers, there cannot be two Buddhas existing
in the same world."
Argument number 3. - Finally, the Buddha said - and his words are not frivolous - that two Buddhas do not
exist at the same time: one thing that is difficult to find is a Buddha Bhagavat. It takes innumerable koti
of kalpas to find one. In 91 kalpas, there have been only three Buddhas. Before the good kalpa
(bhadrakalpa), during the 91st kalpa, there was a Buddha called Vipasyin, 'Views of All Kinds'; during the
31st kalpa, there were two Buddhas; the first was called Sikhin, 'Fire', and the second Visvabhu,
'Victorious Over AH'. During the good kalpa, there were four Buddhas, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni
"Golden Sage', Kasyapa and Sakyamuni. Except for these kalpas, all the others were empty {sunyd),
lacking Buddhas and miserable." ' '"
' ' In other words, they are accomplishing the yamakapratiharya.
775 For these Buddhist hells, see Kirfel, Kosmographie des Inder, p. 199-206.
i ; in Digha, 11, p. 2: Tch'ong a han, T 1, k. 1, p. lc; Ts'i fo king, T 2, P. 150a; Ts'i fo fou mou sing
iscu king, T 4, p. 159b: Ito so bhikkha < < ivuto kappo yam Vipassi bhagava ....aham etarahi araham
sainmasainhuddlia lake uppaimo.
Olhcr references about the seven Buddhas in Hobogirin, Butsu, p. 193-96.
If the Buddhas of the ten directions existed, how could [the Buddha] say that the other k
buddhas and were miserable?
ANSWER TO THE OBJECTIONS
1. Refutation of argument number 1. - Although the Buddha Sakyamuni, endowed with immense
miraculous power {apramanarddhibala), is able to create the apparitional Buddhas (nirmanabuddha)
established in the ten directions, preaching the Dharma, emitting rays and saving beings, he is, however,
not able to save beings without exception. [To claim the opposite] would be to fall [into the heresy] that
assigns a limit to existences (bhavanta) and to deny the existence of the Buddhas of the past. Since the
number of beings is inexhaustible (aksaya), there must be other Buddhas [than Sakyamuni to work for their
salvation].
2. Refutation of argument number 2. - You also object: "The Buddha has said that a female cannot be five
things, that two cakravartin kings cannot appear in the world simultaneously and, likewise, that two
Buddhas cannot exist in the same world at the same time." You do not understand the meaning of this text.
The Buddhist sutras have two meanings: Some have a meaning that is easy to undestand (sulabha), others
have a profound (gambhira) meaning, remote (vipakrsta) and difficult to grasp (dw vigahyd). Thus, at the
moment of entering Nirvana, the Buddha said to the bhiksus: ' ' ' "Henceforth, you must rely on the truth in
''' This is th iii f'lhc four rclian i i I attested to ml i in
ill i J (> ilkl i i ll i i li < 1J c i / ' i •
yijnaiiain.
Dli mill mi rah h Llll / rarian i rtliapratisaraua i ilapi ati-saranata.
.Ylahavyutpatti, no. 1546-1549: catvdri pratisaranaru a n * , , una bhavitavyam na
neyarthasutrapratisaranena.
Sutralamkara, ed. Levi, p. I
pratydtmavedaniyasya.
The Madh. vrtti alludes to the four pratisaranas: p. 43. ■ uktam eaiyaksayainatisutre. kataine \utraiita iieyarthah kataine
iiitarthalj .... na iicyartliasutraiitapratisaranata iti.- p. 533: sa kirn vijuaiieiia pariccliinatti uta juane/ia.
flic Bodh. bhumi, p. 256. irises detailed explanations: kathani hodhisattas catursu pratisarauesu prayujyate. 1. iha
iii j idesam .... 3. punar bodliisattvas
i ( / irsi hliarati ntti napavadati.
evamcapunak p vukn un ', < chatiirsi , i '- majndnasasya.
Ithouidi to m [Lamotl | know ledge tin mi if the four relianci is later than the canoni I In tin (he theory ol
ii / heady hinted at in the Nikayas. T hey make the distinctions betweci i Irii 'id /
'authority' (cf .Ylajjhima, 1. p. 265. where the Buddha advises his monks not to adopt the Dharma out of respect for the
teacher l ttliu;. vena) but because they thcmsclvi have understood ecu and grasped the distinction bcl en /
spirit [oi meaning], and vyanjaiia, letter (cf. Vinaya, I, p. 40, where Sariputra says to Assaji: appam vd bahum vd
hliasassu, atthain vera me hrulii, attlieu' era me uttlio, kini kaliasi vyarijariaiii haliuii ti: .Ylajjhima, II, p. 240:
laiitanaiii me attlio, kiiii kaliasi v\ I ii||i ma, 11, p. 240: ayan i
" ato ea sai bel ii < / nliaiu md vatt mi Icttipakarana, p. 21).
itself and not on any authority, whatever it may be (dharmapratisaranena bhavutayam na pudgalaprati-
saranena); you must rely on the meaning (spirit) and not on the letter (arthapratisaranena bhavitavyam na
vyanjanaprtisatanena); you must rely on gnosis and not on discursive knowledge (jndnapratisaranena
bhavitavyam na vijnanaprtisaranena); you must rely on the sutras of explicit meaning and not on the sutras
ofindclcrminatc meaning (nTtdrtluisritni-prcitiscircincnci hhavitavyum na iwydrthtisutnipnitisurtiiK'nu)."
a) Relying on the truth in itself (dharmapratisaranena) is keeping to the twelve categories of texts
(dvadasdngadharma)''" and not keeping to the authority of a person.
b) Relying on the meaning (arthapratisarana), since goodwill or malice, defect or merit, falsity or truth,
cannot be attributed to meaning. It is the letter (vyanjana) that indicates the meaning (artha), but the
meaning is not the letter. Suppose a man points his finger at the moon to people who doubt the moon's
presence; if these doubters fixate on the finger but do not look at the moon, this man tells them: "I am
pointing to the moon with my finger so that you may notice the moon. Why do you fixate on my finger
instead of looking at the moon?"779 n j s me same here: the letter (vyanjana) is the finger pointing to the
meaning (artha), but the letter is not the meaning. This is why one should not rely on the letter.
c) Relying on gnosis (jnanapratisarana). - Gnosis (jhdna) allows one to appreciate and distinguish
between good and evil; discursive knowledge (vijhdna) is always seeking pleasure (sukha) and does not
penetrate the essence. ' °" This is why one should not rely on discursive knowledge.
d) Relying on sutras of explicit meaning (nitarthasutrapratisarana). - Those sutras are of explicit meaning
that say: "Of all the omniscient ones (sarvajhd), the Buddha is foremost; among all the texts, the Buddhist
texts are foremost; among all beings (sattva), the bhiksus are foremost. "'"^ "Through generosity one
' '° The twelve categories of texts are sutra, geya, vydkarana, etc., which will be defined later, k. 33, p. 306c.
''" Cf. Lahkavatarasutra, p. 106 (quoted in Subli n im i >i ■ ■ In on ] l, o p. 399): Na cangut '<
In order lo understand this lexl more
ii cisch imperii il mil cd b I I uzuki in hi mil i in of tin I nil i il ra I i mien 1932 p Id > .1 i useful to
look at the Tibetan text of the Laii 1 ai E legs p ihi mdo, Tib coll. of the Bibliotheque Nationale, No. 66, folio 146b6-8: Sor
mo la Ita ba Ita bur mu byaho fhdis Ita ste] bio gros chen po .... du child par bya ba ni mi byed do I
one must not do as the person who looks at the finger. Mahamati, it is as if one were pointing out something with one's
finger to somebody who persisted in looking only ai the end of the finger. Similarly, Mahamati, stupid people, ordinary
worldlings, like children, remain fixated on the end of the finger, which is called the literal interpretation, and they will
die still attached to tl net of the fin i hich i died 'the letter'. I iu.il h e ignored the meaning d ignated b
the endof the hn i hi Ii ih II ill lit dun ipi I lion 111 will in i p n Ii li into the Absolute."
Cf. the Chinese versions of the Lankavatara, T 670, k. 4, p. 507a; Y 671, k. 6, p. 551c; T 672, k. 5, p. 616a.
'°° According to the extract from the Bodh. bhumi cited abo\ i 'higi < una is the wisdom coming from meditation
i i i It u i In isdom coming from hcarin md reflecting ( / I in K.o I s ,'
J h iiu ill d I III i 1 ! I in n 'I i I i Ii h i I i mong other I
Thi ii i in iii i!i ii ii i, proclaiming th upcriority of the Triratn the original Pali in It ivuttaka
p. 87; Ahguttara, II, p. 34; III, p. 35: Yavata bhik Ui va d\ ,i i i <
, • ki i i
acquires great merit (punya)."'"^ "Discipline (sTla) allows one to be reborn among the gods" ' , etc. - on
the other hand, that surra is of indeterminate meaning which says: "By preaching the Dharma, the Dharma
teacher (dharmdcdrya) is assured of five benefits: great merit, people's love, beauty, renown, final
attainment of nirvana." '<"
Why is this surra of indeterminate meaning? It is evident and easy to understand that generosity (ddnd)
involves great merit (malidpimya), [but it is not so clear] that preaching the Dharma (dharmadesana),
which is not a material gift (dmisaddna), is meritorious, as this surra would have it. Nevertheless, it is
meritorious; for the preacher, by praising generosity in every way, destroys the greed (mdtsaryd) of others
and combats his own greed: this is why his preaching is meritorious. [But the surra's allegation being itself
unclear], is called 'of indeterminate meanin > | u Ttd ti )'. Man iitra out of skillful means (updya), say
things that [seem] to be inexact [at first sight and which require explanation].
Thus, a surra has said that "two Buddhas cannot appear together in the same world", but by 'the same
world' the surra does not mean to designate all the universes of the ten directions. The surra also says that
"two cakravartin kings are not found in the world together"; it does not mean to say that two cakravartin
kings cannot coexist in the same trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu; it says only that two cakravartin kings
cannot coexist in the same cdturdvipaka (universe of four continents). It is necessary to aquire very pure
merit (punyavisuddhi) in order to reign over the entire world without encountering a rival [as is the case for
the cakravartins]. If there were two kings [in the same world], that would mean that their merit was not
pure. Similarly, although the Buddhas have no feeling of jealousy (Trsya) one against the other, over
lifetimes they have accomplished such pure actions that they cannot both appear in the same world
(lokadhdtu), namely, in the same trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu consisting of a a million Mount
Sumerus, a million suns and moons. In the ten directions, these trisahasramahasahasralokadhatus are as
numerous as the sands of the Ganges and each of them consitutes the universe of a Buddha
(ekabuddhalokadhdtu); only one Buddha is found there, never two. In one of these Buddha universes, the
single buddha Sakyamuni incessantly creates emanated Buddhas (nirmanabuddha) who resort to preaching
(dharmaparydya), to apparitional bodies (kdya), to causes and skillful means (updya) of all kinds in order
to save beings. It is in this sense that it is said in many sutras that two Buddhas cannot exist simultaneously
in the same world. That does not mean that there are not [many] Buddhas in the ten directions [at the same
time].
The corresponding Sanskrit phrase is in the Di\ tdana, i I nn I ' idana laka. 1. p. 49-50 ' ().}'< c i
apada v(i dvipada Tatliagatasravakasaiiipjias tesani agra akliyatah.
See development of the phrase in Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 12, p. 602a.
'° 2 See these five advantages in Ahgtittara, III, p. 41.
' J ibid.. Ill, i va sila no I it' i iii iii
'° 4 This sutra attributes the same benefits to preaching as to generosity; the latter are listed in Ahguttara, III, p. 41: Pane
'ime hhikklnn < dam am am a .... su i papapati
But if it is clear thai these benefits result from generosity, it is less clear that they should also be attributed to preaching.
Hence the necessity for an explanation that will lead the exegetists to place the sermon on the five advantages of
] l 1 iii nto in / i i
Refutation of argument number 3. - You also made the objection: "The Buddha has said that it is hard to
find a Buddha Bhagavat" and you said that in 91 kalpas, only three kalpas had a [125 c] Buddha and that
the other kalpas were empty, lacking a Buddha, and were miserable.
The Buddha has in mind those guilty men who have not planted the roots of good needed to see a Buddha
(anavaropitakusalamula buddhadarsanayd) when he said: "The appearance of a Buddha is a rare thing, as
rare as the appearance of a flower on the udumbara tree (Ficus glomerata)". Indeed, these sinners cycle
through the three bad destinies (durgati), sometimes even being reborn among humans or among the gods;
but when a Buddha appears in the world, they are unable to see him. It is said that among the 900,000
householders in the city of SravastT, 300,000 saw the Buddha, 300,000 heard him speak but did not see
him, 300,000 did not even hear him speak. Now the Buddha lived at SravastT for 25 years and, if some
citizens did not see him and some did not hear him speak, what can be said of people living far away?
one day, accompanied by Ananda, the Buddha went to SravastT on his alms-round. A poor old woman was
standing at the roadside. Ananda said to the Buddha: "This woman is worthy of compassion; the Buddha
should save her." The Buddha replied: "This woman does not have the conditions required [to be saved]."
Ananda continued: "May the Buddha approach her. When she sees the Buddha with his major marks
{laksana) and minor marks {anuvyanjana) and his rays (rasmi), she will experience a joyful mind
(muditacitta) and will thus fulfill the required conditions." Then the Buddha came near the woman, but she
turned away and showed her back to him. The Buddha tried to approach her from four different sides; each
time she turned her back to him in the same way. She looked up in the air, but when the Buddha came
down to her, she lowered her head at once. The Buddha rose up from the earth [to make her see him], but
she lowered her face with her hands and did not want to look at the Buddha. '•" Then the Buddha said to
Ananda: "What more can I do? Everything is useless; there are people who do not fulfill the conditions
necessary for being saved and who do not succeed in seeing the Buddha." That is why the Buddha has said
that it is as difficult to meet a Buddha as a flower on the udumbara tree. With the Buddha, it is like rain-
water (varsajala), easy to receive in folded hands, but which the pretas, ever thirsty, never get. ' °"
You say that in 91 kalpas, only three times has there been a Buddha. This holds for one Buddha universe
taken alone but does not hold for all the Buddha universes taken together. Similarly, the other affirmation
which says that "the other kalpas were empty, without Buddhas, and miserable", applies only to one
Buddha universe alone and not to all the others taken together. This is why we affirm the existence of the
Buddhas of the ten directions.
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR OF THE PLURALITY OF BUDDHAS
Furthermore, the Buddhas of the ten directions do appear in the sravaka texts, but you do not understand
these texts.
785 We should note that there is no ill will on the part of the woman. The text does not say that she does n
the Buddha, but simpK that she is incapable of seeing him because her merits are insufficient.
786 on the Tantalus-like torment of the pretas, see, e.g., Sutralamkara, tr. Huber, p. 99-100.
1) In the Tsa a han king (Samyuktagamasutra),'"' it is said: "When it is pouring rain, the rain drops
(bindu) are so close together that they cannot be counted. It is the same for the universes (lokadhatu). In
the east (purvasyam dis), I see innumerable beings born, subsisting and perishing. Their number is very
great, defying calculation. It is the same in the ten directions. In these universes of the ten directions,
innumerable beings undergo the threefold physical suffering (kayaduhkha), old age (jard), sickness
(vyddhi) and death (marana); the threefold mental suffering, desire (raga), hatred (dvesa) and ignorance
(moha); and the threefold suffering of rebirth (punarbhavaduhkha), rebirth among the damned (naraka),
the pretas and animals (tiryagyoni). All of these universes have three types of men, inferior (avara),
middling (madhya) or [126 a] superior (agra). Inferior men are attached (sakta) to present happiness,
middling men to future happiness, superior men seek the Path; they are filled with loving-kindness (maitri)
and compassion {Lai una) and have pity for beings." When the causes and conditions [necessary for the
coming of a Buddha] are present, why would the effect, [namely, the coming of a Buddha] not be
produced? The Buddha has said: "If there were no sickness, old age and death, Buddhas would not
appear." '°° That is because when one sees people tormented by old age, sickness and death, one makes
the resolution (pranidhdna) to become Buddha in order to save all beings, cure their mental illnesses and
take them out of the pain of rebirths. Now, precisely these universes of the ten directions show all the
causes and conditions required for the coming of a Buddha (buddhaprddurbhdva). How can you say that
our universe is the only one to have a Buddha and the others do not? You merit as little credence as the
person who says: "Here there is wood, but there is no fire; the ground is wet, but there is no water." It is the
same for the Buddha. These beings suffer the pains of old age, sickness and death in their bodies; their
minds are subject to the sicknesses of desire (raga), hatred (dvesa) and ignorance (moha); the Buddha
appears in the world to destroy this threefold suffering and introduce beings into the triple vehicle
(yanaytraya). How could the Buddha not appear in all the universes where this suffering exists? It would
be wrong to say that s single remedy (agada) is enough to cure numberless blind people (andhapurusa)
[and consequently, a single Buddha to cure numberless beings]. Therefore the Buddhas of the ten
directions must necessarily exist.
2) Furthermore, a sutra'°" in the Tch'ang a han (DIrghagama) says: "There was a king of the asuras,
guardian of the north; during the last watch of the night, he went to the Buddha with many hundreds of koti
of asuras, and having bowed down to the Buddha's feet, he stood to one side; emitting a pure light, he
illumined the Jetavana with a great light. Joining his hands together, he praised the Buddha with the
following stanzas:
Great hero, I take refuge in you!
Buddha, the greatest of those who walk on two feet.
'°' I [Lamotte] have not found this surra in T 99 where it should appear. Excepting error, it is lacking in the Pali
Sarin ulla.
' Anguttara, V, p. 144: Tayo hhikkluivc dluimmii lake na samvijjeyyum. na Tathagato loke uppajjeyya araham
sainnuisainhuddlio... Kataine tayo? Jati cujurii ca nuirunan ca.
'°" This is the start of the Alanalikasiilra in Sanskrit, the text of v\ hich has already been given above.
What you know with the wisdom-eye
The gods cannot understand.
Whether they be past, future, or present
I bow before all the Buddhas.
Taking refuge today in the Buddha
I also pay homage equally to the Buddhas of the three times."
In these stanzas, it is a question of the Buddhas of the ten directions; the asura king bows before the
Buddhas of the three times; then, in particular, he takes refuge in the Buddha Sakyamuni. If the actual
Buddhas of the ten directions did not exist, he would take refuge only in the Buddha Sakyamuni and he
would not say anything about the other past (atfta), future (andgata) or present (pratyutpanna) Buddhas.
This is why we affirm the existence of the Buddhas of the ten directions.
3) Furthermore, if there were, in the past, innumerable Buddhas, if there will be, in the future, innumerable
Buddhas, there must also be, in the present, innumerable Buddhas.
4) Furthermore, if, in the sravaka texts, the Buddha had spoken of incalculable (asamkhyeya) and
innumerable (apramdnd) Buddhas of the ten directions, beings would have said: "Since Buddhas are so
easy to find, it is not necessary to seek deliverance (vimoksa) zealouly. If we won't meet this particular
Buddha, we'll meet another one later." Out of laziness (kausidya) they would not diligently seek their
salvation. A gazelle that has not been shot at by [126b] an arrow (sard) does not know fear; but once it has
been shot at, it bounds away [at the approach of the hunter]. In the same way, people who know the
sufferings of old age (jara), sickness (vyadhi) and death (maraud) and who have heard that there is but one
Buddha who is very hard to find, feel fear, make energetic efforts and quickly come to escape from
suffering. This is why, in the sravaka texts, the Buddha has not spoken about the existence of the Buddhas
of the ten directions but neither did he say they do not exist.
5) If the Buddhas of the ten directions exist and if you deny their existence, you are committing a sin of
immediate retribution (anantaryapatti). on the other hand, if the Buddhas of the ten directions do not exist
and, nevertheless, I affirm their existence merely to produce the notion of Buddhas infinite in number
(apramanabuddhasumjnd), I gain the merit of paying homage to them (sutkdixipunya). Why is that?
Because it is good intention (kusalacittd) that makes great merit. Thus, in the samadhi of loving-kindness
(maitrwittasamadhi), one considers all beings and sees them all happy; even though there is no real benefit
for the beings [to be considered as happy], the person who considers them in this way with loving-kindness
gains immense merit. It is the same for [the person who sets out] the idea of the Buddhas of the ten
directions.
If the Buddhas of the ten directions really exist and if one denies their existence, one commits the
extremely grave sin of attacking the Buddhas of the ten directions. Why? Because one is attacking
something true. The person does not see these Buddhas with his fleshly eye (mdmsacaksus); but if he
affirms their existence out of faith {cittaprasdda), his merit (punya) is immense. on the contrary, if he
mentally denies their existence, since these Buddhas actually exist, his sin {apatti) is very grave. If, then,
the person should believe in the existence [of the Buddhas of the ten directions] from their own lights, why
should he not then believe in them when the Buddha in person has proclaimed the existence of these
Buddhas in the Mahayana?
LARGE NUMBER OF SAVIORS, BUT SMALL NUMBER OF THE
ELECT
Question. - In the ten directions, if there is an immense number of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, why do they
not come [to the aid] of the beings who, at the present time, are falling into the three bad destinies
(durgatiyl
Answer. - 7) Because the sins {apatti) of these beings are too serious. '"" Even if the Buddhas and
bodhisattvas come [to their aid], these beings would not see them.
2) Moreover, the dharmakaya Buddhas ceaselessly emit rays (rasmi) and ceaselessly preach the Dharma
but, because of their sins, these beings neither see nor hear them. Thus, when the sun {surya) rises, blind
people (andhd) do not see it; when thunder (vajra) shakes the earth, deaf people (badhira) do not hear it;
similarly, the dharmakaya emits rays ceaselessly and preaches the Dharma ceaselessly, but the beings who
have accumulated sins {apatti) and stains {mala) in the course of innumerable kalpas do not see it and do
not hear it. If the mirror {ddarsa) is clear or if the water (Jala) is limpid, one can see one's image in it; but if
the mirror is dirty or the water disturbed, one sees nothing; in the same way, beings of pure mind see the
Buddha, while those of impure mind do not see him. Although even today, the Buddhas and bodhisattvas
of the ten directions come to save beings, they cannot see them.
3) Moreover, the Buddha Sakyamuni, born in JambudvTpa, lived in Kapilavastu, but often traveled to the
six great cities of eastern India.'" 1 one day he flew to southern India to the home of the vaisya Yi eul
(Kotikarna), whose veneration he received. ^ Another day, he went to northern India to the kingdom of
'"" Cf. Samdhinirmocana, IX, st. 25: If the bodhisattvas have at their disposal inexhaustible wealth, if they are
compassionate, how is it that there are still miseries in the world? This is solely the fault of the sins of beings. If there
were not sins standing in opposition to their happiness, how would there be wretched people in the world since the
bodhisattvas think only of helping others and have inexhaustible wealth? h is like the prctas tortured by thirst; they see
the water of the ocean dry up in front of them. This torture cannol be imputed to the ocean; it is due to the retribution of
the sins committed by the pretas. Similarly here, the suffering of wretched people cannot be imputed to this ocean \\ liich
is the generosity of the bodhisattvas, but solely to the demoniacal actions that are the sins of beings.
'"! The frequent visits of the Buddha to the six large cities of eastern India and especially to Rajagrha and Sravasti has
already been noted.
' " The journey of the Buddha to southern India and his reception by Kotikarna. - The legend of Kotikarna in the
Vinayas has been studied by S. Levi, Sur la i vedestex udd I \ May-June, 1915, p. 401-417.
The sources arc Pali Vinaya, I, p. 194 seq.; Udana, p. 37 scq lul i li ! i naya, T 1447, k. 1, p. 1048c-1053c
the Yue tche; there he subdued the naga-king A po lo (Apalala); then, going to the west of the Yue tche
kingdom, he subdued the raksasT, stayed in her cave (guha) and, even until today, the Buddha's shadow has
remained there: those who go
[126 c] inside the cave see nothing, but when they come outside, they see the rays at a distance. Finally,
the Buddha flew to Ki pin (Kapisa?) on the mountain of the rsi Li po t'o (Revata); remaining in space, he
subdued this rsi, who said to him: "I would like to stay here; would the Buddha please leave me one of his
hairs (kesa) and one of his fingernails (nakha)?" The rsi then built a stupa to venerate them which still
(corresponding exactly to the Kotikarnavadana in the Divya, p. 1-24); Sarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1435, k. 25, p. 178a-182a;
Mahlsasaka Vinaya, T 1421, k. 21, p. 144a; Dharmagupta Vinaya, T 1328, k. 39, p. 845b.
In all these sources, Kotikarna is a disciple of Mahakatyayana. Teacher and disciple lived in the kingdom of Avanti,
capital Lfjjayinr, on the Malva plateau, hi the Pali Vinaya and the Lfdana, the kingdom is called Avanti; in the
I At ,iiu i upl i ind I ihi isaka Vinaya Ispakavati: in th mi i ii idin Vinaya l.sv latvanti ii tin Inl i rvasl i In
Vinaya, Astm i I ii una went to visit the Buddha who was staying ai Sravasti in the Jetavana (or,
according to the Dharmagupta Vinaya, at Rajagrha on the Grdhrakutaparvata). He prostrated before the Buddha and sat
down at one side. The Buddha welcomed him in the usual way. Ananda prepared Kotikarna's bed in the Buddha's cell.
The Buddha came to his cell after midnight and Kotikarna followed. At the request of the teacher, Kotikarna recited the
Arthavarga and the Buddha congratulated him. Kotikarna informed the Buddha about the difficulties of observing (he
monastic precepts in remote countries; in southern countries and in Avanti, where monks were few, the Buddha allowed
five monks to conduct ordination; he also permit ice! the constant use of baths and shoes.
Thus it is established from the texts that Kotikarna once went from Avanti to Sravasti (or Rajagrha) to make the
acquaintance of the Buddha. on the other hand, the sources do not say that the Buddha ever went to Avanti, or any other
place to visit Kotikarna. Nevertheless, the Mpps is explicit: one day the Buddha flew to southern India to the home of
if n i! in! irn svhopaidhi res] ts 1 him." But the Mpps is wrong. Let us see what the error consists of and let
us try to explain it.
a) It is wrong that the Buddha ever went to Kotikarna in Avanti, but it is true that he visited southern India. on the
imitation of Purna and his brothers, he went to Surparaka, capital of Sronaparanta (southern IConkan). The voyage is
described in the Midi irva li nhii Vinaya, T 1448, k. 3, p. 14b23-17a21; Divyavadana, p. 16-55 (tr. Burnouf,
Introduction, p. 234-245); Papanca, V, p. 90-92; Marattha, II, p. 378-379. The Buddha flew there with five hundred
arhats. on the way, he converted five hundred widows, five hundred rsis and the sage Vakkalin. He landed in Surparaka
in the sandalwood pal i (ctiiula > ida) which he changed into crystal. on returning, he converted the naga
kings ICrsna and Gautamaka and. according to the Pali sources, he left the imprint of his foot on the bank of the Nammada
(actual!;, the Ncrbudda) river. From there, he went to the MarTcika heaven to convert Bhadrakain i vlaudg il; i; ma'
mother. Finally at the speed of thought, he returned to Sravasti to the Jetavana.
/>) There is no doubt that the .Vlpps is alluding lo this \ oyagc v, hen it says that the Buddha flew to southern India. But why
does it say that the Buddha went to the home of Kotikarna when the Buddha was received by Purna? Probably because
Surparaka, Puma's city, is located in Sronaparanta and the surname of Kotikarna is Srona (in Pali, Sona Kotikanna). I he
Mpps is not alone in having brought together (he name of the country and the surname of heroes, whereas in the other
Vinayas which we have analyzed above, Kotikarna is the disciple of Mahakatyayana and a native of Avanti. The
Ylahasamghika Vinaya, T 1425, k. 23, p. 415c, has it that he was a disciple of Purna and living at Chou na
(Sronaparanta).
exists today; at the foot of this mountain is the monastery (vihara) of Li yue, to be pronounced Li po t'o
(Revata). 793
'"-' The journey of the Buddha to the north-west of India. - The Mpps briefly recalls only the more important incidents:
the subjugation of the naga Apalala, the conversion of the raksasi, the miracle of (he shadow, (he conversion of Revata.
The cycle of Asoka is hardly any more prolix; it mentions only four incidents:
Tsa a han, T 99, k. 23, p. 165b: "When the Buddha was about to enter into nirvana, he converted lli<- naga Km j vpal i! i
the master-potter (kuinhhakara). the candala, the naga Gopali; then he went to the kingdom of Mathura."
Divyavadana, p. 348 (corrupt text kal nil \ i i lal
Gopalnii (iui tesaiii Matliiirain aimpraptalj.
A yu wang tchouan, T 2042, k. 9, p. 102b, adds some geographical indications: once, when the Buddha was in the
kingdom ol ( 'i ci < (I Mi ,! i in bdi d the na i > mi i ilala) b li ' n d m il I i pin probably Kapisa,
and not Kasinir as I'rzyluski, Asoka, p. 245, would have it) he converted the fan tche (braliiiiacarin) teacher. In the
kingdom of K'ien t'o uei (Gandhara), he converted the tclien t'o lo (candala). In the kingdom of Gandhara, he subdued the
ox-naga (gonag i.i Gopalanaga) Ihcn he went to Mathura." The voyage is told in detail in the Mulasarvastivadin
Vinaya, Ken pen chouo... yao che, T 1448, k. 9, p. 40b6-41cl. The judicious comments of S. Levi in Catalogue
ographiqi akslia. J Ian I eb , 1914, passim should be added to the translation given by Przyluski, Le Nord-
Ouestde Vlnde, JA, Nov.-Dec., 1914, p. 510-517.
With some goodwill, one may retrace the major stages of this journey by taking as an outline the Mulasarvastivadin
Vinaya and introducing into il the information provided by the Mpps, the Kouan fo san mei (T 643) and especially the
Chinese pilgrims Fa hien (in Kao seng fa hien tchouan, T 2085), Song yun (in Lo yang k'ie Ian ki, T 2092) and Iliiian
tsan;j, (in Si yu ki, T 2087 and Ta ts'eu ngen sseu san I n fa Ik houan I ho i i il n m'i i India in 399,
520 and 630 respectively. For greater objectivity, I [Lamottc] will refer to the sources directly and not the translations of
l id Gih (for Fa hien), Chavaiiin (lot u uiiii lulicn, B 1 and \ tiers (fi Hiuan I ig). Despite its lati
date, the Avadanakalpalata, ch. 34-57 (ed. Mitra, II, p. 110-151 ) merits all the attention given to it by Dcmicvillc in his
study on It; 1/ BCFEO, XXIV, 1924, p. 36-43. The splendid Greco-Buddhist discoveries
of Foucher and the French archcological vv oik in Afghanistan permit us to trace the Buddha's footsteps on the maps they
h i [i I ' I v 1 1 a i \ i i i t ( / i'M '01 | 169 Notes sur
' i Ltudcs asiatiqucs, Paris, 1 / ' vati BSOS, VI, p. 341-
348; J. Barthoux, Les Fouilles de Hadda, Paris, 1933., p. 4: map of the Jelal-Abad district.
According to the Mulasarvastivadin V inaya (I.e.), after having crossed the Indus towards the west, the Buddha took eight
stages to cross Uddiyana, the Lampaka, and arrived in the neighborhood of Peshawar.
1st stage. - In the kingdom of the Yue tche (.Vlpps, p. 126b), in Uddiyana (A yu wang tchouan, p. 102b). near the sources
of the Swat (Si yu ki, p. 882b), he subdued the Naga Apalala. Wc have already studied the legends relating to Shis naga
and we have seen that except for the P'ou sa pen hing king, T 155, k. 2, p. 1 16b-c, vv liich locates him in the pool of Yeou
lien, near Rajagrha, the other sources locate him in the north-west.
The Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya (I.e.) gives a detailed account of the struggle between the Buddha and the naga:
Accompanied by Vajrapani, the Buddha arrives at Apalala's palace. Furious, tin n i i kin ri i up in ihi ui md l lin
down a deluge of hail and clods of earth. Having entered the meditation on loving-kindness, the Buddha changes the
hailstones and the earthen clods into various perfumes. The naga hastens to send weapons against him which arc
immediately changed into lotus flowers. Then Apalala spreads a cloud of smoke which the Buddha counters with another
cloud of perfume. on the Buddha's order, Vajrapani vv ith his club destroys the mountain crest which crumbles and fills up
432
the naga's lake, To prevent She latlci from fleeing, the Buddha sends out flames everywhere. Apalala lakes refuge close to
the Buddha where the earth is quiet and cool. Subdued, he lakes refuge in the Three Jewels.
The taming of Apalala is represented on the Gandharan bas-relifs (Foucher, Art Greco-bouddhique, 1. fig 270-275) and
the Chinese pilgrims Fa hien (p. 858a), Song yun (p. 1020a) and Hiuan tsang (p. 882c) add further deiaiis: they note the
place where the Buddha dried his kasaya wetted by the naga, the rock where he left his foot print. She spring where he
chewed a willow twig which he planted and which immediately became a big tree.
2nd stage- Conversions of the rsi and th ksainthcvill I (in Til 'nil nil i i ii
must certainly be located on the upper Swat.
3rd stage. Sojourn in She rice-granary city which is none oilier than Vlangalaor, in Sanskrit, Mahgalapura tin iiont l ,
i ! i i i i i i I ipital of the Udc 1 1 1 ' i I h id to th ' I i i i Ii i 1 1 i i 1 i liuan
(sang, the Buddha healed and converted the mother of king Uttarascna.
It seems that after this third stage, the Buddha, either walking or flying south-west, went directly to Lampaka (Lamghan)
a district of Afghanistan located on the middle course of the Kubha river. (Kabul), Its main cities are Nagarahara (Jclal-
abad) and Hadda (cf. J. Barthoux, Les fouilles de Hadda, I and III, Paris, 1933). Its neighbor to the east is Gandhara,
cradle of Greco-Buddhisi art, made famous by the works of Foucher; to the west, I ipisa, i ipital I ipisi (Bcgi im)
illustrated by the breach archcological works in Afghanistan (cf. J. Hackin i eeliert hi ai '<> ologii i (iegram, 2 vol.,
Paris, 193' I. Hackit nd I irl i lieo i < le Kin i k Paris, 1936). Note that L mi| il i
long a tributary of Kapisa (cf. Hiuan tsang. Si yu ki, k. 2, p. 878b) is often confused with it in the texts.
4th stage. - City of Rev ata (Chin., Kiyi to, Tib., Dban l h i lb lulilli i i Jib master po ii /
is told at length in the .Vlulasarvasti din Vinaya (I l. Wc ha ecu that th yu sang tchouan I i h i .n < i i > i
I ilu brahmacarin teacher at i ryzluski le d \ ihinl h ii nn n hen >\v ' i mil I mi I
[Lamottc] have good reason to think thai is it rather Kapisa Lampaka. This is not impossible because if "it is certain thru,
in the translations of Buddhist texts prior to the year 600, Ki pin always corresponds, when we have a parallel Sanskrit
text, to Kasmir and not to Kapisa-Lampaka, ... theoretically il is not impossible thai Ki pin max have originally meant
KapisI," (P. Pelliot, Tokharien et Koutcheen, JA, Jan.-Mar., 1934, p. 39 note). The Mpps tells us that here the rsi Revata
built a stupa on a mountain, containing the hair and finger nails of the Buddha and that, at the foot of this mountain, there
was still at his time the v ihara called Revata.
la hien (p. 839a) found a stupa 400 paces from the Cave of the Buddha's Shadow built over lite hair and finger-nails of
the Buddha, located a half yojana from Nagarahara, Hiuan tsang (Si yu ki. p. 879a) found this same stupa at the north
west side of the cave; it contained, he said, the Buddha's hair and nails. Song yun (p. 1021c) also notes at Nagarahara
some famous relics containing the tooth and the hair of the Buddha. This can only be the stupa built by Revata and the
relies gathered by him after his conversion.
Therefore Revata's stupa raid v ihara are near Nagarahara and the mountain of A'7 pin in question here is to be found in
Kapisa-Lampaka and not in Kasmir
The monastery of Revata (in Chinese Li yue or Li po t'o) was well-known. In the legend of Asoka (Divyavadana, p. 399;
Tsa a han, T 99, k. 23, p. 169a-b; A yu wang tchouan, T 2042, k. 2, p. 105a; A yu wang king, t. 2043, k. 3, p. 139c), the
great emperor, in a mystical trance, invited ihe faithful w ise men dw clling in she pleasant cit\ of Kasmna or the v iharas of
Tamasavana, Mahavana and Revataka. Ihe pleasant cit\ of Kasmira, as the name indicates, is in Kasmir: the Tamasvana
and. the Mahavana (Sounigram) are in Uddiyana fef. Hiuan tsang. Si yu ki, T 2097, k. 4, p. 889b; k. 3, p. 883a); as for
Revataka, we locate it in Kapisa. flic latter enjoyed great veneration by the faithful. The Sutralamkara (tr. Hubcr, p. 429)
mentions the case of a poor man and a poor woman from K'ipin (Kapisa) who went so far as to sell themselves in order to
make offerings to the monks of the Revata monastery.
We may add that there are many 'Revata's' in Buddhist hagiography: Vlaialasckara's dictionaiy of proper names (11, p.
751-755) counts no less than a dozen and the list is not complete. There was, notably in a monaster) of Rasmir, a Rcvata
or rather a Raivataka, who was the hero of an avadana told in chap. 103 of the Avadanakalpalata. cd. S.C. Das, II, p. 979:
I'ura Raivataka naina Kasintresu sucivratah /
Bhiksuh Sailavihare 'hliin sarvahhutadayasrah //
"Among the Kasmirians in the Craggy Monastery, there once was a monk with pure vows, named Raivataka, the
compassionate support of all beings."
The Vibhasa, T 1545, k. 125, p. 654c-655b, tells his misadventure at length: once in the kingdom of Kia cho mi lo
il iii Hi, ih.) pita! tlledPj > tci (Biratha). Not far from this city there was a mon i i i th
Che vai (Sailav ihara) where there lived a bhiksu-arhat. one day, he was about to dye his robe when a man approached
and asked if he had seen his call'. When the monk replied in the negative, (he man examined the- inoffensive dye-vat: fate,
or rather the lav, of karma, had it thru the man mistook the robe for a cow's hide, the dye for its blood and the vat for the
head of the cow. The bhiksu was thrown into prison by (he king and his pupils were not concerned about him. After many
years, (hey came anyway to reclaim him from the king and to protest his innocence. When he was to be liberated, the
bhiksu had changed so much in appearance thai m bod J lm i er thi had to shout aloud in the [in on
"\V here arc you, sramana? By the royal favor you are free." The bhiksu leapt out of prison and flew up into the air. At
this sight, the king felt remorse and apologized to the bhiksu who affirmed that he had never felt any anger towards the
king and recommended that his students not hold it against the king. A young sramanera who had not heard (his ad\ ice,
inwardly cursed the evil city that had imprisoned his master for so many years. An amanusya, divining his thoughts,
causedarain of earth lo fall that completely destroyed the capital of Rasmir.
[Chav amies, who was unaware of she above-mentioned sources, knew the story of the bhiksu Rcvata from two tales
incorporated in the Kieou tsa p'i yu king, T 206, no. 32, k. 1, p. 516a, and Tsa pao tsang king, T 203, no. 19, k. 2, p. 457b.
He translated them in his Contes, I, p. 395; III, p. 15-17.]
5th stage. - The city of Green Reeds (Chin. Lou so; Tib. Gsin ma can] where the Buddha converted a yaksa and his
6th stage. - The city of 'Shelter-heap ' ( Sansk. Rutapala I where the Buddha converted the cow-heidei i < , >p la) md < i>'
naga-king Sou teliii. This passage from the .Ylulasarvastivadin Vinaya is probably interpolated: it should read "where the
Buddha converted the naga king Gopala". Other sources tell us thai the Buddha, left his shadow in the naga's cave; here is
their content:
a. The Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya places the conversion of the naga king Gopala ai Rutipala but docs not mention the
Cave of the Shadow.
b. Fa hien and Song yun describe the Cave of the Shadow at length which they locate ai Nagarahara but say nothing of
the conversion of the naga Gopala.
c. Hiuan tsang places at Nagarahara both the conversion of the naga Gopala and the Cave of the Buddha's Shadow.
/ I In i ouan lb in in ih i king loi iti h lagarahata tin conversion of a naga whose name it docs not mantion and that
of five raksasl. It describes at length the circumstances that led to the Buddha, leaving his shadow in the naga's cave.
e. The Mpps places the conversion of the A m I rak i i ind the Cave of the Buddha's Shadow in the west of the land of
Yue telle.
No doubt the same legend lies hidden beneath the divergences of detail. Some citations from these sources will convince
(he reader:
fa hien tchouan, T 2085, p. 859a3-7: "If one follows the mountain chain to the south-west, half a yojana south of the city
of Nagarahara, (here is a rock cave where the Buddha left his shadow. When one looks at it at from a distance of more
Ihan ten paces, ii has the appearance of the true shape of the Buddha with his golden color (snvarnavarna), his major
marl i ' na) iml minor marl (anuv\ i \ his ra i , i id In Ii 1 hii ah I U losci n I it bcconn
I in 11 if it i ill i i in hen th kin ol Ii nci hi in l i n 'in 1 1 ists to make a copy of it, none of
them succeeded. In this land there is a popular tradition that says that the thousand Buddhas must all leave their shadow
[The difficulties always experienced by artists trying to reproduce the Buddha's image are illustrated by a short talc told
by the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya, T 1442, k. 45, p. 874a-b; Divyavadana, p. 547 (tr. Burnouf, Introduction, p. 304; San
pao kan ying yao lio you, T 2084, k. 1, p. 827-828: Rudrayana, king of Roruk, made a gift to Bimbisara, king of
Magadha, of a marvellous breastplate, I he latter, in return, wished to send him a portrait of the Buddha, but the painters
entrusted with this work were unable to take their eyes off their divine model and (heir hands remained inactive. The
Buddha then projected his shadow onto a cloth: the painter then traced the outline and added the colors.]
Song yun, Lo yang k'ie Ian ki, T 2092, k. 3, p. 1021c-1022a (according to the corrections and translations of E.
Chavanncs. Voyage de Song yun. BliFEO, III, 1903, p. 428): "I arrived in Nagarahara where I saw the cave with the
Buddha's shadow; there is a door facing west; if one penetrates the mountain to a depth of fifteen paces and one looks
from alar, then all the distinctive marks [of the Buddha] appear clearly; if one touches the place with one's hand, there is
nothing but the face of the rock: if one v\ ithdraws gradually, one begins to see the face appear again in a remarkable way:
that is a very rare phenomenon in the world. In front of the cave there is a square rock on which is the imprint of one of
the Buddha's feet. one hundred paces south-west of the cave is the place \\ here the Buddha « ashed his garments."
A century later. Hiuan tsang also had the occasion to visit the cave, of which he gives ample detail. Cf. Si yu ki, T 2087,
k. 2, p. 879a (tr. Beal, I, p. 93-95; Watters, I, p. 184) and Vie de Hiuan tsang, T 2053, k. 2, p. 229c-230a (tr. Beal, Life of
'1 i g, p. 61-62). H in ih ii the Buddha's shadow, seen clear!) ai earlier times, was no longer visible except on
rare occasions and to certain individuals. The Vie tells under what dramatic circumstances he himself was privileged io
see the shadow; it is a line page of religious literature which may be read in Grousset's Sur les traces du Buddha, Paris,
1929, p. 93-95.
According io Hiuan tsang, the cave had been inhabited formerly b\ the naga Gopala, a cow herder who had been changed
into a naga in revenge. Converted by the Buddha, he had asked him for permission io remain in his cave always. Hiuan
(sang confirms certain details already mentioned by his predessors: like fa hicn, he is aware of the tradition according to
\\ liich the thousand Buddhas of the good kaipa must leave their shadow in this cave; like Song yun, he saw the place near
the cave where the Buddha left the imprint of his feet and washed his clothes. He also notes, close to the cave, the
presence of other caves "which the oilier noble disciples of the Buddha had occupied as their places of meditation." Now
we know from the Kouan fo san mei hai king that the naga king and his raksasis had buill five caves for the great
disciples of the Buddha.
The Kouan fo san mei hai king, T 643, k. 2, p. 670b-681b (tr. J. Przyluski, Le Nord-Oest de I'Inde, p. 565-568), was
translated by Buddhabhadra (died 429), perhaps a native of Nagarahara (Bagchi, 1, p. 341, n.3), thus in a good position to
tell us the folklore of Lampaka. This very detailed work is perhaps the direct source of the Mpps. Here is a brief summary
of it:
The Buddha came to the kingdom of Na kie ho lo (Nagarahara). on the mountain of the old rsi. in the flowering forest of
Jambu, at the shore of a poisonous naga's pool, north of the source of blue lotuses, in the cave of the raksas, south of the
mountain .1 na sseu (Anasin). There was, at that time in the cave, five raksas who had been i h m d into i m I n ig
and were the mates of a poisonous naga. They caused famine and epidemics in the land. Puspabhuti, king of Nagarahara,
inv ited the Buddha to rid his kingdom of this scourge. Accompanied by Ananda and four great disciples, the Buddha went
n of the old rsi and, with the help of Vajrapani and Maudgalyayana, vanquished the naga and the five
If people who were born in the same country as the Buddha were unable to see him, then what can be said
of strangers? Therefore, it is not because the Buddhas of the ten directions are unseen that one can say that
they do not exist.
4) Furthermore, the bodhisattva Mi Id (Maitreya), despite his great loving-kindness (maitrf), stays in his
celestial palace and does not come here. But, because he does not come, can it be said that he does not
exist? If we find it strange that Maitreya, who is so close [to us], does not come, why should we be
surprised that the Buddhas of the ten directions who are so far away do not come [to us]?
5) Furthermore, if the Buddhas of the ten directions do not come here, it is because beings are laden with
very heavy wrong-doings (dpatti) and stains {mala), and do not fulfdl the qualities (guna) needed to see the
Buddhas.
6) Moreover, the Buddhas, [before coming], first must know it the roots of good (kusalamula) of beings
are ripe (pakva) and their fetters (samyojana) light. It is only after that that they come here. It is said:
By a preliminary examination, the Buddhas recognize beings
raksasis. At their request, he agreed to stay for a time in the rock cave of the raksasfs. When he wanted to leave, the naga
king asked him to stay with him forever. "If you leave me, I will never see the Buddha again," he lamented. "I will
commit bad deeds again and fall back into my evil ways." The Buddha consoled him: "I accept; I will stay in the cave for
fifteen hundred years." Then the Buddha performed a series of miracles: he leaped up and his body entered into the rock.
The nagas all saw the Buddha who remained in the rock and whose brightness was seen outside. Without leaving the
pool, they constantly saw the sun of the Buddha seated cross-legged inside the rock. When ii\ ing beings saw him, it was
by looking from a distance; from close up he was not visible.... The shadow also preached the Dharma." (lis J. Prz\ luski).
finally, we may note that Foucher has identified the Cave of the Shadow near the village of Tchhar Bagh. The Buddha
and bodisattvas have also left their shadows in several other places, notably ai ICausambi and ai Gaya (cf. Kern, Manual,
p. 90-91). In this latter city, the shadow is represented on a sculpted post: "A rock-hewn cell of the usual type, a stone bed
inside shown in very low relief; on the right, two lay people richly clothed, approach v\ ilh joined palms. Inside the cave, a
small standing person had been painted, holding a monk's staff." (Coomarasawam\ , La sculpture de Bodhgaya, p. 37 and
pi. XL VII, 2).
7th stag,:. The seventh stage brought the Buddha to the city of Nandivardhana. According to the Mulasarvastivadin
Vinaya, the Buddha converted king Dcvabhuti and his family there, the seven sons of the candali, the protector yaksa of
the lake, the nagas Asvaka and Punarvasu, for whom he left his shadow in a lake close to the city, and finally the two
yaksls Nalika and Nadodaya.
S. Levi, who has collected a series of references on the city of Nandh aidh ma (cf. ( > qi i ,<
78), locates it between Jelal abad and Peshawar, the A yu wang tchouan (T 2042, k. 1, p. 102b), for what it is worth,
restricts the area of search, for it places the conversion of the candali in Gandhara. This event having occurred at
Nandivardhana. the city of this name is somewhere between the western border of Gandhara and the city of Peshawar. It
is likely that the Buddha, leaving Nagarahara, crossed Lampaka in an easterly direction and entered Gandhara by the
Khyber Pass (or more likelj . by fi> ing o\ er She mountains': and arrived at Nandivardhana.
Stli and 9th stages. - on leaving Nandivardhana, the Buddha went to the city of Kunti, w here he lamed the \ aksi of (lie
same name: then io the village of Kharjura where he foretold the building of the great caitya of Kaniska. Hiuan (sang (Si
yuki, T 2087, k. 2, p. 879c) tells us thai (he caitya was near Peshawar: archcologists have found its location in (lie tumuli
at Shah-ki-Dheri. '
Whom no skillful means (updya) can save,
Those who are difficult to save or easy to convert,
Those whose conversion will be slow or fast.
By means of the rays, by the bases of miraculous power (rddhibdla),
By all kinds of means, the Buddhas save beings.
There are rebels whom the Buddha avoids,
There are rebels whom the Buddha does not protect.
He has hard words for the violent who are difficult to convert;
He has soft words for the gentle who are easy to save.
Despite his loving-kindness, his compassion and his equanimity,
He knows the favorable time and, in his wisdom, he uses skillful means.
This is why, although the Buddhas of the ten directions do not come here, it cannot be said that they do not
exist.
7) Moreover, if the great arhats such as Sariputra, etc., and the great bodhisattvas such as Maitreya, etc.,
cannot know the wisdom (prajnu) power (hula), skillful means {updyd) and superknowledges (abhijnd) of
the Buddha, how could worldlings (prthaqgjana) know them?
8) Finally, when, menaced by imminent danger, a being wholeheartedly invokes the Buddhas or great
bodhisattvas, it sometimes happens that they do come to his aid.
a. Thus in the west of Ta yue tche, near the monastery (vihdra) of BuddhosnTsa, '"4 there was a man
suffering leprosy (pdman, kusta), a wind sickness (vdyuvyddhi). He went to the statue (pratima) of the
bodhisattva Pien ki (Samantabhadra); one -pointedly (ekacittena) he took refuge in him (saranam gatah)
and, thinking of the qualities of the bodhisattva Samantabhadra, he asked him to remove his sickness.
Immediately the statue of the bodhisattva rubbed the leper's body with the precious rays [that came] from
his stoney hand and the sickness disappeared.
b. In a certain land, there was a forest bhiksu (aranyabhiksu) who often recited the Mahayana [surras]. The
king of the land always gave him his hair (kesa) to trample under his [127 a] feet. A bhiksu said to the
king: "This man, O maharaja, has not often recited the surras; why do you pay him so much homage?" The
king replied: " once in the middle of the night, I went to see this bhiksu whom I found in a cave (guhd)
reciting the Fa houa king (Saddharmapundarlkasutra). I saw another man with golden colored rays
'" 4 This is the precious relic of the Usnisa, a bone formation on the skull of the Buddha; it was at ///' lo (Hadda), about
five miles south of Nagarahara (Jclal-Abad). The Chinese pilgrims never failed to visit it and they describe in detail the
festivals that took place there: Fa hien tchouan, T 2085, p. 858c (tr. Legge, p. 36-38); Lo yang k'ie Ian ki, T 2092, k. 5, p.
1021c (tr. Chavannes, BEFEO, III, 1903, p. 427-428); Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 2, p. 879a (tr. Beal, I, p. 96; Watters, I, p. 195-
198); Yi tsing, Religieux eminents, tr. Chavannes, p. 24, 79, 105.
(suvarnavarnarasmi) mounted on a white elephant who, with joined palms (krtanjali), paid homage to the
bhiksu. When I approached, he disappeared. I then asked the venerable one (bhadanta) why the man with
the rays had disappeared at my arrival. The bhiksu answered: "That is the bodhisattva Pien ki
(Samantabhadra); this bodhisattva has made the following vow: 'Each time someone recites the
SaddharmapundarTkasutra, I will come on a white elephant to teach him (avavada).''95 \ s t was rec iting
the SaddharmapundarTkasutra, the bodhisattva Samantabhadra came in person." [Note by KumarajTva: Pien
ki in the Fa houa king is called P'ou hicn, Samantabhadra].
c. Finally, in a certain country, there was a bhiksu who recited the A mi t'ofo king (Amitabhabuddhasutra)
and the Mo ho pan jo po lo mi (Mahaprajnaparamita). When he was about to die, he said to his students:
"Here comes the Buddha Amitabha with his great samgha"; his body shook, he took refuge and died at
once. After his death, his students built a funeral-pyre and burned him. The next day, among the ashes
(bhasman) they discovered the bhiksu's tongue (jihva) which had not burned up. Because he had recited
the Amitabhabuddhasutra, this bhiksu had seen the buddha Amitabha come to him; because he had recited
the Prajnaparamita, his tongue could not be burned. '""
These are facts of the present day, and the sutras tell of many cases of Buddhas and bodhisattvas appearing.
Thus in many places there are people whose sins (apatti), stains (mala) and bonds (bandhana) are light;
they wholeheartedly (ekacittena) invoke the Buddha; their faith (sraddha) is pure and free of doubt; they
will necessarily succeed in seeing the Buddha and their efforts will not be in vain.
For all these reasons, we know that the Buddhas of the ten directions really exist.
'"^ This promise was made by Samantabhadra when, leaving the buddhafield of the buddha Ratnatejobhyudgataraja, he
went to the Saha universe to visit Sakyamuni on the Grdhrakutaparvata. It is recorded in the Saddharmapundarika, p. 475 ■
1 i i / hi incline kale pastime samaye past nayam i i i
visaclusanam karisyami.
"If, at the end of time, in thai last era during the last Eve hundred years [of the kalpa], O Bhagavat, monks or nuns or the
faithful if both v po in rit in i n lu,i hantin Ihi i planati n of tin Dharma I ill how my own
body to them, the sight of which is pleasing to all beings. Mounted on a six-tusked w liitc elephant, surrounded by a crowd
of bodhisattvas, on the twenty first day, I will go to the place where the Dharma teachers walk, and when I get there, I
will leach these interpreters of the Dharma. I will make them accept the teaching, I will encourage them, 1 will fill them
with joy and ivi them magii il p II > th I tin < niMpi tci il die Dharma will not be oppressed by anyone; so that
not a single being, whether human or non-human, will have a chance to surprise them ant! so that women will be unable
to seduce them. I will watch over them, I will ensure (heir safety, 1 will protect them from being beaten or being
poisoned." (tr. Burnout).
For the white elephant, the mount of Samantabhadra, cf. Kouan p'ou hicn p'ou sa hing fa king, T 277, p. 390a.
796 Cf. Hobogirin, Amida, p. 25.
Sutra: At that time, in that universe there was a bodhisattva called P'ou ming (Samantarasmi) - (Atha tatra
lokucllultau Sanumtarasinir iidnui hoclhisattvali).
Sastra: For the meaning of the word 'bodhisattva' see Chapter VIII.
Why is this bodhisattva called Samantarasmi? Because his rays (rasmi) illumine all the universes
ceaselessly.
Siitra: Seeing this great brilliance, this great trembling of the earth and the [ordinary] body of the Buddha,
he went to the Buddha Ratnakara and said: "Bhagavat, what are the causes and conditions for this great
brilliance that lights up the universe, for this great trembling of the earth and the appearance of the body of
the Buddha?" (mahantum arahlulsain clrstvd tain ca nullum tain prtliirfcdlain tarn ca nullum tain
prthivicdlam tarn ca bhagavatah prdkrtam dtmabhdvam drstvd yena bhagavdn Ratndkaras
tenopasamkramacl upasainkrainya rain tatlulgatain eiacl avocat. ko hliagavan Iwtuli pratyayo 'sya inahaio
'vabhdsasya loke prddurbhdvdya, bhavasya ca inaliatah prtliivfcalasya, asya ca tathdgatasya
pidkrtdtinahhdvasya sainclarsanaya).
Sastra: For the trembling of the earth, the body of the Buddha and his brilliance, see Act V, above.
Question. - The bodhisattva Samantarasmi, the most venerable and the foremost of the bodhisattvas, should
himself know all that. Why does he question the Buddha on this subject?
Answer. - 7) Great as he is, the bodhisattva Samantarasmi is incapable of knowing the wisdom (prajnd)
and the miraculous power (rddhibala) of the Buddha; it is like the moon (candra) whose light, great
though it is, disappears at day-break (suryodaya). This is why he asks the Buddha.
2) Moreover, the bodhisattvas always want to see the Buddha and their hearts are insatiable [127 b]
(asamtusta). Even without any reason, they wish to see the Buddha; what then can be said when they have
good reasons?
3) Moreover, Samantarasmi's motivation [for asking Ratnakara] in unquestionable. It is not astonishing that
the calf (vatsa) follows its mother; it is normal for kinglets to come to greet the great king. Similarly, the
great bodhisattvas who have derived such great benefits from the Buddha always wish to follow the
Buddha. Thus, when the bodhisattva SamantaraOmi sees these things, his attention is awakened; [he says]:
"This must be something very important." Seeing that the incalculable (asamkhyeya) innumerable
(aprameya) universes become visible one to another, he questions the Buddha.
4) Finally, some say: The bodhisattva Samantarasmi [knows the reasons for these miracles] because he
himself has miraculous power (rddhibala) or because the Buddha Sakyamuni makes them known to him. If
he asks the Buddha, it is intended only for the lesser bodhisattvas who do not know. These lesser
bodhisattvas, out of fear of objections, do not dare to question the Buddha; this is why Samantarasmi asks
for them. The bodhisattva Samantarasmi guides the [Ratnavatl] universe with its youths (ddraka) and
maidens (ddrikd); therefore he knows that they cannot ask the Buddha. Just as when a big elephant
(mahdgaja) uproots a big tree (mahdvrksa) to allow the little elephants (gajapota) to eat its leaves, thus
Samantarasmi questions the Buddha [for the lesser bodhisattvas] and asks him: "Bhadanta, what are the
causes and conditions for this great brilliance, for this great trembling of the earth, and for the appearance
of the body of the Buddha?"
Sutra: The Buddha Ratnakara answered Samantarasmi: "O son of good family, in the west, beyond
universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, is the universe called So p'o (Saha). The Buddha named
Sakyamuni is there who, at this time, is preaching the Prajnaparamita to the bodhisattva-mahasattvas.
These [marvels are caused] by his miraculous power" (Evam ukte Rutntiktiras tatlulgatah Samantarasmim
bodhisattvam etad avocat. usti
atikramya Saha nama lokadhatus tatra Sakramunir nama tatlulgatas tistati. sa bodhisattvanam
uibhuvah.)
Sastra. - Question. - The Buddha is like Mount Sumeru which cannot be moved by the waves (tarahga) of
the great sea; why does he reply here to Samantarasmi? That is a mark of agitation (ijyanimitta), for when
the mind is concentrated, one does not talk; a certain agitation of the mind is necessary to talk. Preaching
the Dharma comes from an arousal (avabodhana) which in itself is a coarse thing (sthuladravya). But the
Buddha cannot have anything coarse.
[127 c] Answer. - 7) Deep in samadhi, the Buddha is not disturbed (injita) by things of the world;
nevertheless, as a result of hs great loving kindness {maitri) and great compassion (karuna), he has
compassion for beings and preaches the Dharma for them to destroy their doubts. Like Sumeru, king of the
mountains, unshaken by gentle winds but which trembles strongly when the Souei-lan winds '" ' blow, the
Buddha, at the breath of the wind of his great loving-kindness and great compassion, is moved by
compassion and constantly enters into the five destinies (pancagati) in order to convert beings; to this
effect he assumes [the five kinds of existence], from the god realm to the animal realm.
2) Actually, [even while he speaks], the Buddha is not disturbed and is always resting in samadhi; but as a
result of his merits acquired in earlier existences (purvajanma), he utters sounds (sabda) and answers in the
797 The reading Souei Ian (170 and 13; 140 and 14) found in the Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 34, p. 736 under its
homophone, Souei Ian ( 170 and 13: 46 and 9), is probably in error and should be corrected to P'i Ian (81 and 4; 140 and
14). It is actually the latter reading which is found in two other passages of the Mpps: 1) At k. 11, p. 139b-c: "The winds
coming from the four cardinal directions cannot shake mount .VI cm, but at the end of the great kalpa, the P'i Ian wind
arises and blows [upon mount Mem] like a pile of straw." At k. 17, p. 188b: "The winds coming from the eighl directions
cannol shake mount Mem, but at the end of the kalpa, the P'i Ian winds arise and blow on mount Mem like a pile of
1 li P'i Ian v mil i I In vairamh or vairamhl i ol tin ! iskrit l< i (Dp i\ idana, p. 90, 105; Kosa, VI, p. 155)
and the verambha of the Pali texts (Samyutta, II, p. 231; Anguttara, I, p. 137; Jataka, III, p. 255, 484; VI, p. 326).
According to the Samyutta (I.e.), the verambha winds blow in upper space (upari akasa). When a bud encounters them,
the verambha winds strike it and its claws, wings, head and body are scattered.
manner of an echo (pratisruta). Like a heavenly musical instrument (divyaturya) that emits sounds
automatically (svatah), like a precious stone (mani) thai automatically gives people everything they desire
in the way of clothing (cTvara), food (dhdra) or music (vddya), the Buddha speaks automatically through
all the pores ixomakupd) of his body and preaches the Dharma according to the wishes [of his listeners]
without any action, thought (manasikdrd) or conception (yikalpd) on his part.
Thus it is said in the Mi isi kin kang king (Guhyakvajrapanisutra): '"° "There are three secrets (guhya) in
the Buddha: the body secret (kdyaguhya), the speech secret (vdgguhya) and the mind secret (cittaguhya).
Neither gods nor men can grasp them or understand them.
a. The members of a given assembly (samgha) see the body of the Buddha [with its changing aspects]: his
color (yarna) is yellow-gold, silver- white or a mixture of precious colors; his size is one arm-span and six
feet, one /;', ten li, a hundred li, a thousand li, ten thousand li or one hundred thousand li, sometimes even it
is infinite (ananta), immense (apramdna) like space (dkdsa). Such is the secret of the body.
b. Secret of the voice. - They hear the voice of the Buddha at a distance of one li, ten, a hundred, a
thousand, ten thousand, a hundred thousand li, or even at an incalculable (asamkhyeya) immense
(aprameya) distance like space. In a given assembly, some hear the Buddha preach on generosity (ddna),
others onmoial t\ (sila) the ti i tion (virya) vdna or wisdom (prajna). And so the twelve classes
of sutra and the 80,000 dhai iskai dims are heard according to the wishes of everyone. Such is the secret
of speech.
one day Mou lien (Maudgalyayana)'" had this thought: "I would like to know the range of the Buddha's
voice." Then, by virtue of his base of miraculous powers (rddhipdda), he passed through innumerable
thousands of millions of buddha-universes {buddhalokadhdtu) and then he stopped; he still heard the voice
of the Buddha as if he were quite close. In the universe where he had stopped, a Buddha was in the process
of dining with his great assembly. °^0 In that land, the people were large, and Maudgalyayana [coming
from the Saha universe where people are small] was standing in a begging bowl (pdtra). The disciples
asked their Buddha: " Where does this insect-headed person come from? He is dressed like a sramana."
The Buddha replied: "Do not despise this man. In the west (pascimdydm disi), beyond innumerable
buddha-lands, there is a Buddha named Sakyamuni and this man whom you see is a powerful disciple of
this Buddha." Then the Buddha asked Maudgalyayana: "Why have you come here?" Maudgalyayana
answered: "I have come to find out [the range] of the Buddha Sakyamuni's [128 a] voice." The Buddha
said to him: "So you want to know the range of the Buddha's voice! If you distanced yourself [from him]
for innumerable kalpas, you would never get to the limit of his range."
'"° Here the Mpps gives some extracts from the third part of the Ratnakuta, of which we have two Chinese and one
Tibetan translations. Cf. Mi tsi kin kang li che houei, T 310, k. 10, p. 53b seq.; De b€in gsegs pahi gsan
(Tathagatacintyagiihyanirdcsa): cf. Csoma-Feer, p. 214; OKC, no. 760, 3, p. 231.
'"" In the sources mentioned in the preceding nol< . daudgah i\ ma' < tpi rience is told in the following places: T 310, k.
10, p. 56c-57a; T 312, k. 7, p. 720c-721a. Later, the Mpps, k. 30, p. 284a, will refer to it also.
° 00 According to T 310 and T 312 (I.e.), the universe where Maudgalyayana stopped was called Kouang ming fan
(Rasmipataka, 'Banner of Rays'); it was led by the Buddha Kouang ming wang (Rasmiraja).
3) Finally, the Buddha appeared in the world and preached the Dharma to destroy the doubts of beings
(sattvasamsayasamucchedand): this cannot be denied. Just as one cannot ask the sun (suryd) why it chases
away the shadows (andhakdta), in the same say one cannot ask the Buddha why he responds [to questions
that are asked of him].
Question. - Being alike one to another (sama), the Buddhas are said to be 'alike enlightened' (sambuddha);
then why speak here about the miraculous power (rddhibala) of one [particular] Buddha?
Answer. - 7) Having proclaimed the non-existence of self (nairdtmya) and [the vanity of distinctions]
between this and that, [the Buddhas] have destroyed envy (Trsya) and pride (mdna).
2) Moreover, in the universe there are gods (deva) who claim superiority and, out of their pride
(abhimdna), claim to be the creators of the beings and the things in heaven and on earth. Thus Fan t'ien
wang (Brahmadevaraja) said to the Brahma gods: "It is I who have created you"; and the god P'i nieou
(Visnu) said: "All the rich, noble and glorious men of the universe are parts of me. It is I who have created
the universe and it is I who destroy it. Creation and destruction of the universe are my work."°Ul [By
speaking thus], these gods destroy the law of causation (pratTtyasamutpdda). on the other hand, the
truthful speech (satyavdc) of the Buddhas does not destroy the law of causation; this is why the sutra
speaks of the miraculous power of a particular Buddha.
Sutra: Then the bodhisattva Samantarasmi said to the Buddha Ratnakara: Bhagavat, I will go [to the Saha
universe] to see the Buddha Sakyamuni, greet him and offer my services; I will also see the bodhisattva-
mahasattvas who will also accede to the state of buddhahood (bhuyastvena kumdrabhuta), who have
attained the dharanls and the samadhis and acquired mastery over all the samadhis (Atha khalu
Samantarasmi/- bodhisattva Ratndkaixim tatluigatum ctad avocat. gamisydniy ahum hhagavams lain Saluim
lokadhdtum tarn ca Sdkyanuiniin tathdgatain darsandya vanchindya paryiipdsandya tains ca bodhisattvdn
mahdsattvdn bhuyastvena kumdrahhutdn dhdranlsamddhipraiHahdhdn sarvasaiiuidliivasipdramitdm
gala a).
Shdstra. - Question. - The Buddhas are all equal (sama) in regard to morality (sila), samadhi, wisdom
(prajhd) and skillful means. Why then does the bodhisattva Samantarasmi want to go to see the Buddha
Sakyamuni [when he is already at the side of the Buddha Ratnakara]?
Answer. - The bodhisattvas never tire (asamtusta) of seeing the Buddhas or hearing the Dharma; they
never tire of seeing the assemblies (samgha) of bodhisattvas. The bodhisattvas who all experience disgust
(samvega) for the things of the world (lokadharma) are never tired of the three things just mentioned.
1 For Brahma and Visnu whom the heretics consider to be creators of the world and of beings, see above.
Thus, leaving the pure abodes (suddhavasa), the vaisya Cheou (Hastaka), ®2 came t see t ne Buddha; he
™2 This is Hastaka Atavika (in Pali Hatthaka Ajavaka) He was called 'Hastaka' because he had been 'passed from hand
to hand' (hat i I I tu H v h n ih 1 Inika was about to cut him to pieces the Buddha
intervened and the yaksa surrendered him to the Buddha who gave him back to his family. The detailed story of this
legend will be found in Manoratha, I, p. 388-393; on a bas-relief at Gandhara reproduced by Foucher, Art Greco-
hhuUIi I h p 09 ill yal i n 'with hi hail i uuhn 'in mi in i In terrify in < < livh ih pared
infanl to the Buddha as a pledge of his recent conversion'. Other sources, such as the Avadanasataka, II, p. 147-151, and
(he Siuan tsi po yuan king, T 200, no. 93, k. 19, p. 251, explain this strange name in another way: having been born for
five hundred lifetimes without hands for having once refused to wash a vase for his preceptor, Hastaka was finally born
"with hands" at the time of the Buddha Sakyamuni. As for the surname Atavika-Alavaka, it refers to the hero's origin,
born in the forest (in Sanskrit atavT), or living in the city of the same name, Alavl (Newal in the Unao district of U.P., or
Aviwa, 27 miles NE of Etwah).
Hastaka is a famous Buddhist lay person (upasaka) who appears in several sutras:
1) Sutra of Ala vf (Anguttara, I, p. 136-138; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 20, p. 650) where the Buddha declares that he is one
of those who live happily in die world (ye ca puna lake sukhain senti aliain desani annatro ti).
2) Hatthakasutta no.l (Anguttara, IV, p. 216-218; Tchong a han, T 26, no. 41, k. 9, p. 484c) where the Buddha praises the
< i In m rvi II hi ij n i ( //;/ a ', • i it 1 1 i I il i
3) Hatthakasutta no. 2 (Anguttara, IV, p. 218-220; Tchong a han, T 26, no. 40, k. 9, p. 482c-484b) where Hastaka
lains that it is thanl i > th [ i i of the foul I m nl i 1 ing-l m h i ih it he li i Id ii
guiding his five hundred lay discipples.
4) Hatthakasutta no. 3 (Anguttara, I, p. 278-279; Tsa a han, T 99, no. 594, k. 22, p. 159a; T 100, no. 188, k. 9, p. 442a-b).
It is to this last surra that the Mpps refers here. Here is the translation:
a. Tsa a han, T 99, k. 22, p. 159a: Thus have 1 heard. once the Bhagavat was in the vihara in the jungle (atari, or the city
of Alavi). At thai time, the jungle ayusmat (Hastaka) died from a sickness and was reborn among the Avrha gods [first
goup of Suddhavasika gods]. Born among these gods, he thought: "I must not stay here long; I do not see the Bhagaval
V i> liu ih i In din 111 Irong man extending his arm (vcri , / i lie left
(he heaven of the Avrhas and reappeared in front of the Buddha. The celestial body of this devaputra bent down to the
ground: he was unable to stand upright: like melted butter (sarpis) or oil (taila) creeps into the ground, he was unable lo
i md upri hi 1. I in ( ih> In i i lib nl ol .hi d * ipuli , i ubtlc (suksina) .1) il In is unable to si ind I he n the
n n lid i levaputi i a l ii hiii I and mal mrsc body (and n n you
will be able to stand on the earth." At once the devaputra changed his siiape, made a coarse body for himself and was able
to stand upright. Having bowed down to the Buddha's feet, he sat down to one side. Then the Bhagavat said to the
di iputra Hastaka Do you ill iln i! bout the lexis (di l thai on once lcai d (ua \ta) hen Ha\e you not
forgotten them?" the devaputra Hastaka answered the Buddha: "Bhagavat, what I once learned, I have not forgotten
today. As for the teaching i rut idh irm i) that I did not receive among men, today I recognize them also: they are
harmonious with the holy discourse (subhasita) of the Bhagavat. The Bhagaval has said: The blissful abodes
(sukliaviliara) where one can remember the Dharma are not places of unhappiness. This speech is true. When the Buddha
dwells in Jambudv tpa, the lour assemblies surround him and he proclaims the Dharma; the four assemblies that hear his
words welcome them respectfully. It is the same for me in the heaven of the Avrhas: when I preach the Dharma to the
great assembly of gods, the gods accept my sermon and put it into practice." The Buddha (lien asked the devaputra
Hastaka: "When you were among men, how many dharmas did you never weary of in order to have been reborn among
Hi' ', ' ili i god '" I Im di ' ipuli i 1 1 i i J i in eied the Buddha: "It is because I never tired of three things that abler my
had a subtle isuksmd) body; he was flexible; like a straw, he could not stand upright. The Buddha said to
the vaisya Hastaka: "Make a coarse body {audarikam dtmabhdvam abhinirmihi) appropriate to this realm
for yourself." The vaisya followed the Buddha's advice and made for himself a body of a size appropriate
for the earth. Having bowed down to the Buddha's feet, he stood to one side. The Buddha asked: "Of how
many things (dharma) have you never wearied in order to have been able to be reborn in the heaven of the
pure abodes (suddhdvdsa)?" He replied: "I took rebirth in the heaven of the Suddavasa for never having
tired of three things: i) I never tired of seeing the Buddhas (buddhdndm aham dar sandy dtrptah) or of
paying homage to them; ii) I never wearied of hearing the Dharma (saddharmasravanaydtrptah); Hi) I
never tired of serving the community (samghasyopasthdndydtrptah). When the Buddha dwells in
JambudvTpa, the four assemblies always follow him, listen to his Dharma and question him on the subject.
In the same way, the Suddhavasa gods always follow me, listen to my sermons and question me [128 b]
about them."
If the sravakas do not tire of hearing the Dharma, what then could be said of the dharmakaya bodhisattvas
{dharmatakayabodhisattvaY! That is why the bodhisattva Samantarasmi comes to see the Buddha
Sakyamuni and the bodhisattva-mahasattvas who will accede to the state of Buddhahood (bhiiyastvena
kumdrabhuta) and who have obtained the dharanis and the samadhis. In the chapter devoted to the praise
of the bodhisattvas, we have said what should be understood by those who have "acquired mastery of all
the samadhis".
Question. - The Buddha is the only one to have obtained mastery (vasita) of all the samadhis. Why do you
say here that the bodhisattvas also have obtained mastery of all the samadhis?
Answer. - There are two kinds of samadhi, those of the Buddha and those of the bodhisattva. The
bodhisattvas in question have acquired mastery of the bodhisattvas samadhis and not those of the Buddha.
death I took rebirth among the Avrha gods. What are those three things? I never tired of seeing the Buddha, I never tired
of hearing the Dharma, I never tired of serving the community. Because of that, after my death, I look rebirth among the
Avriha gods." 'I hen the devaputra Hastaka spoke these stanzas:
To see the Buddha
To hear the Dharma
To serve the community
I have never wearied of these things.
I have studied the holy Dharma
I have conquered the stains of avarice (mdtsarya).
I am never weary of three things,
This is why I have been reborn among the Avrha gods.
| II ' i till iiil li n iln uti i 1 tin i i i im ul i im i il In h ilc I i a h in ih li i I lion ih I Ih lpp ii i
borrowed its citation. This surra is absent in the Pali Samyuttanikaya; on the other hand, it is present in the
i nil i ni 1 i\ the Pali v< ion ho n hi IM rcn to allow some comparison, here is the text]:
b. Ahguttara, I. p. l > / / i ii \ i , inn tin vii ' a aramt Tinnam
I iiaiian i i> it ko Avilunn goto t
Thus, in the Tchou fo yao tsi king (Buddhasamgltisutra), °^3 j t j s sa j ( j. yy en cnou cne n (Manjusn) wanted
to see the assembly of the Buddhas (buddhasamgiti) but did not succeed because the Buddhas were each
returning to their starting point. Manjusn went to the place where the Buddhas were gathered; a woman
was seated beside the Buddha, deep in samadhi.°04 Manjusn bowed down to the Buddha's feet and asked:
"Why should this woman be able to sit close to the Buddha when I cannot?" The Buddha replied: "Wake
this woman, make her come out of samadhi and ask her yourself." Then Manjusn snapped his fingers to
rouse her but with no success. He shouted but did not succeed in rousing her; he pulled her by the hand but
did not succeed in rousing her; by his bases of miraculous power (rddhipada), he made the
trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu shake but still did not succeed in rousing her.
Then Manjusn said to the Buddha: "Bhagavat, I cannot rouse her." Then the Buddha emitted great rays
(rasmi) that illumined the universes at the nadir (adhodiglokadhdtu) and at once a bodhisattva named K'i
tchou kai (ApahritanTvarana) arose from the direction of the nadir and, bowing down to the feet of the
Buddha, stood to one side. The Buddha said to bodhisattva K'i tchou kai: "Wake this woman up." Then the
bodhisattva K'i tchou kai snapped his fingers and the woman came out of her samadhi.
ManjushT asked the Buddha: "Why was I, who made the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu tremble, unable
to rouse this woman, whereas the bodhisattva K'i tchou kai made her come out of samadhi merely by
snapping his fingers once?"
The Buddha said to Manjusn: "It is because of this woman that you first produced the thought (cittotpdda)
of anuttarasamyaksambodhi, whereas it is because of the bodhisattva K'i tchou kai that this woman has for
the first time produced the thought of anuttarasamyaksambodhi. This is why you were unable to rouse her.
In regard to the Buddha's samadhi, your power (anubhavd) is incomplete (aparipurnd); you have acquired
mastery (vasita) over the bodhisattva's samadhi.
[128 c] Since you have rarely entered the Buddha samadhis, you do not have mastery over them."
Sutra: The Buddha said to Samantarasmi: "Go then; know that the right moment has come." Then the
Buddha Ratnakara gave the bodhisattva Samantarasmi golden lotuses with a thousand petals and said to
him: "O son of noble family, scatter these lotuses over the Buddha Sakyamuni. The bodhisattva-
mahasattvas born in the Saha universe are difficult to vanquish and difficult to attain; be careful when
wandering about in this universe (Bhagavan aha. gaccha tvam kulaputra yasyedamm kdlam manyase. atha
klialii Ratudkaras tagdthagatah suvarndvahlidsdiiisahasrapatirdni padmani Samantarasmaye
bodhisattvaya pradat. etais tvam kulaputra padmais nun Sdkyamunim tat/iagdtam ah/iyarakiivlj. durjayd
° t " Tchou fo yao tsi king, T 810, k. 2, p. 765c-766c. - There is also a Tibetan translation of the Buddhasamgitisi
entitled Saris rgyas bgro ba, Mdo, XVII, 9 (cf. Csoma-Feer, p. 264; OKC, no. 894, p. 343).
804 In T 810, p. 766al4, this woman is called Liyi (172 and 11; 61 and 9).
durasada ca te bodhisuttvu ye tutra Sahayam lokadluitciv uipannah. stiinpmjtmakari ca tvain bhuyas
tasmim lokadhdtau carari)
Sastra: Question. - Why does the Buddha say: "Go now; know that the right moment has come"?
1) Because the Buddha has broken all fondness (anunayd) for his disciples and because his heart is free of
attachment (sahgd) for his disciples.
2) Furthermore, the bodhisattva [Samantarasmi] who has not yet acquired omniscience (sarvajnana) or the
Buddha eye (buddhacaksus) feels some doubts about the qualities (guna), the worth and the power of the
Buddha Sakyamuni. This is why the Buddha Ratnakara says to him: "Go and see him."
3) Furthermore, the bodhisattva [Samanatarasmi] perceives from afar that the Buddha Sakyamuni has a
small body and he feels some pride (mana) in saying that his Buddha [Ratnakara] is not as small as that.
This is why the Buddha [Ratnakara] tells him: "Go and see him without thinking about [the size] of his
body or paying attention [to the ugliness] of the Saha universe. Be satisfied with listening to the Buddha's
sermon."
4) Furthermore, the [Ratnavatl] universe where the Buddha Ratnakara and the bodhisattva Samantarasmi]
live is very far away from the Saha [home of Sakyamuni] for it is located at the eastern borders. The
bodhisattva Samantarasmi heard the Buddha Sakyamuni preaching a Dharma exactly the same as that of
Ratnakara and he had to confess that, although the universes were so far apart, the Dharma is the same.
This will increase his faith (sraddha) and his convictions will be confirmed.
5) Furthermore, because [of the actions] of his former lives (purvajnma), the bodhisattva Samantarasmi is
forced to go to hear the Dharma [in the Saha universe] despite his distant birthplace. He is like a bird
(puts in) tied by its feet: no matter how far it flies, the cord (rajjii) restrains it and it must return.
6) Finally, the bodhisattvas of the Saha universe, seeing Samantarasmi coming so far to hear the Dharma,
will think: If he has come from so far away, how could we not listen to the Dharma, we who are born in
this universe?
For all these reasons the Buddha [Ratnakara] says: "Go then, know that the right time has come."
Question. - The Buddhas have the same power (samabala) and do not seek to [gain] merit (punyakama). If
they do not seek [to gain merit], why then does [Ratnakara] send lotuses [to Sakyamuni]?
Answer. - 7) It is to conform to the worldly custom {lokadharmdnuvartana). Thus, two kings mutually
exchange gifts even though they are of equal power.
2) Moreover, he sends these lotuses instead of a letter (pattrd) to express his friendship. According to
worldly custom (lokadharma), when a messenger (duta) comes from afar, he should have a letter. The
Buddha, who conforms to worldly custom, sends a letter.
3) Finally, it is in order to honor the Dharma that the Buddhas make offerings to the Dharma for the
Dharma is their teacher (dcdrya). Why is that? The Buddhas of the three times have as their teacher the
true nature of dharmas.
Question. - Why do they honor the Dharma of other Buddhas instead of honoring the Dharma which they
themselves embody?
Answer. - It is in order to conform to the usage of the world (lokaclluuindniiYurtana). Just as the [129 a]
bhiksus, in order to honor the Jewel of the Dharma (dharmaratna), do not honor the Dharma which they
embody in themselves, but honor others. Guardians of the Dharma (dharmadhard), Knowers of the
Dharma (dharmajna) and interpreters of the Dharma (dharmanirmocaka), so the Buddhas, although they
have the Dharma in themselves, only honor the Dharma of other Buddhas.
Question. - But the Buddha no longer seeks to [gain] merit (punya); why does he honor the Dharma?
Answer. - The Buddha, who has cultivated the qualities for innumerable incalculable periods
(asamkhyeyakalpa), continues to practice the good always. It is not in view of any reward (vipdka), but out
of respect for the [buddha] qualities that he venerates (pujd) the Buddhas.
Thus, in the time of the Buddha, there was a blind (andha) bhiksu whose eyes no longer could see. ^ one
day he was mending his robes and he could not thread his needle (suci). He said: "May anyone who wants
to gain merit (punya) thread my needle for me." The Buddha came and said to him: "I am a man who wants
to gain merit; I am here to thread your needle." Recognizing the voice of the Buddha, the bhiksu got up
immediately, put away his robes and prostrated at the Buddha's feet, saying: "The Buddha fulfills all the
qualities (paripurnapunya); why does he say that he wants to gain merit?" The Buddha answered: "Even
though my merits are complete, I recognize the deep cause (read yin = hetu), fruit (phala) and power (paid)
of these qualities. If I have obtained the foremost place among all beings, it is as a result of these qualities.
That is why I love them." Having praised the qualities, the Buddha then preached the Dharma according to
his wishes. The bhiksu obtained the purity of the Dharma-eyo (dharmacaksurvisuddhi) and his fleshly eyes
(mdmsacaksus) recovered their sight.
Finally, the qualities are perfected in the Buddha; he has no further need of anything; but in order to
convert disciples, he says to them: "If I have realized these qualities, why should you not be able to acquire
them?" There was an old man of about a hundred years of age dancing in a variety theater. He was asked
why he continued to dance at his age. The old man replied: "I have no need myself to dance; if I do it, it is
only to teach dancing to my pupils." In the same way, in the Buddha, the qualities are perfected; it is in
order to teach his disciples that he continues to practice these qualities and thus to venerate them.
Question. - If that is so, why does the Buddha [Ratnakara] not go in person to offer his lotuses on the
Buddha Sakyamuni, but rather he sends someone in his place to venerate him?
°*" This anecdote, which the Mpps will repeat at k. 26, p. 249b, is taken from the Sibijataka as it is told in the
Avadanasataka, I, p. 182-183 (tr. Feer, p. 124-125):
Buddha Bluigavun Srdvastvdm viharati jctavanc 'iiathapdjdadasyaraine. tciui kluilu sainayeiia .... puijyuir lahdluiramo
'ham hldkso punyair ato me trptir uasthiti.
In the Sinan tsi po yuan king, T 200, no. 33, k. 4, p. 218a, where the anecdote is also told, the blind bhiksu is called Che
//o (44; 38 and 8), i.e., Siva.
Answer. - So that the bodhisattvas of the [Saha] universe may receive Samantarasmi. Moreover, the
messengers (duta) sent by the Buddhas have no fear of water, fire, soldiers, poison or the hundred thousand
other dangers.
Question. - Why not use precious jewels (ratna), profound sutras (gambhirasutra), or Buddha or
bodhisattva jewels as letter (pattra)! [Note by Kumarajlva: These jewels, invisible to the gods, produce all
kinds of precious objects; thus the cudamani is called 'Buddha Jewel']. Why is Ratnakara content to use
lotuses, objects of little value, as a letter?
Answer. - 7) The Buddha Sakyamuni has no need of anything. He has no need of 'Buddha jewels' or divine
jewels, or still less, human jewels. Since he has no need of them, [Ratnakara] does not send them. Since the
Buddha Sakyamuni already has them, they are not sent to him. And it is the same for the profound sutras
(gambhirasutra).
[129b] 2) Furthermore, these sutras would have nothing profound for the Buddha [Sakyamuni]. The
epithet 'profound' [applied to sutras] concerns only ordinary people (balajana). That which makes ordinary
people hesitant is no obstacle for the Buddha; that which is difficult for ordinary people is easy for the
Buddha.
3) Finally, by their perfume and their freshness, lotuses are very suitable as offerings (puja). It is as with
human gifts where variety is desirable.
Question. - Why should lotuses be used and not other things?
Answer. - Worship ipuja) uses flowers (puspa), perfumes (gandha) and banners (dhvaja) exclusively:
flowers for a twofold reason, because of their color (varna) and their smell (gandha).
Question. - But other flowers also have color and smell; why does [Ratnakara] use only lotuses (padma) as
offerings?
Answer. - In the Houa cheou king (Kusalamulasamparigrahasutra)°06 it is said: "The Buddhas of the ten
directions offer flowers to the Buddha Sakyamuni."
Moreover, there are three kinds of lotuses (padma), human lotuses, divine lotuses and bodhisattva lotuses.
The human lotus is a big lotus with ten petals (pattra), the divine lotus has a hundred and the bodhisattva
lotus has a thousand. In [Ratnakara's] universe, there are many golden lotuses with a thousand petals
(suvarnavabhasani sahasrapattrani padmani). In [Sakyamuni's] Saha universe, there are indeed thousand-
petalled lotuses, but they are artificial (nirmita) and do not grow in the water. This is why [Ratnakara]
sends him thousand-petalled lotuses golden in color.
Question. - Why does the Buddha [Ratnakara] ask Samanatarasmi to scatter (abhyavakr) these flowers on
the Buddha?
°"" Cf. T 657, k. 1, p. 130c. This siitra is called Kusaiamulasamparigrahasuta in Sanskrit, li was translated into Chinese
by ICumarajiva: this version bears different titles: Ilouti cheou king (Puspapanisutra) as here, but also Cheou elien ken
king, or Cheou teliou ton to king (cf. Bagchi, I, p. 187). A Tibetan translation also exists, entitled Dge hahi rtsa bayohs su
hdzinpa, Mdo IV, 1 (cf. Csoma-Feer, p. 234; OKC, no. 769, p. 275).
Answer. - These objects of worship (pujddharma) are flowers (puspa), perfumes (gandha) and banners
(dhvaja). Banners must be erected; powdered perfumes (curna) burned; wet perfumes (vilepana) spread on
the ground; and flowers, thrown.
Question. - Why not present them instead of throwing them?
Answer. - Offering with the hand is a bodily action (kdyakarman); speaking in a gentle voice (snigdhavdc)
is a vocal action (vdkkarman). The action that gives rise to gesture and voice
(kdyavdksamutthdpakakarman) is called mental action {manaskarman). These three actions produce the
solid qualities that give rise to Buddahood.
Question. - Why does [Ratnakara] say: "Be careful; the bodhisattvas in the Saha universe are difficult to
reach (durdsada) and difficult to vanquish"?
Answer. - 7) The Buddhas, pratyekabuddhas, arhats and all the aryas are all very mindful
(samprajdnakdrin), for Mara, Mara's army (mdrajana), the inner fetters (ddhydtmikasamyojana) and the
multiform retribution of the sins of previous lifetimes (ndndvidhapurvajanmakarmavipdka) are like many
brigands (caura) of whom one must be careful when they are approached. Thus, when one goes among the
brigands and one is not careful, one is captured by them. This is why [Ratnakara] advises Samantarasi to be
very careful while going about in this universe.
2) Moreover, the human mind (citta) is often distracted (viksipta): it is like a madman or a drunkard.
Resolute mindfulness (samprajdnakdra) is the entry way to all the qualities (guna). By concentrating the
mind, one successively obtains dhyana, real wisdom (bhutaprajnd), deliverance (vimoksa) and finally the
destruction of suffering (duhkhaksaya): those are the advantages of mindfulness (ekacitta).
Thus, five hundred years after the Buddha's parinirvana, there was a bhiksu called Yeou po [129 c] kiu
(Upagupta); he was an arhat with the six abhijnas; at that time he was the great teacher of JambudvTpa.°^7
At that time, there was a one hundred and twenty year-old bhiksum who had seen the Buddha when she
807 See the avadana of Upagupta in the Tsa a han, T 99 (no. 640), k. 25, p. 177b; Divyavadana, p. 348 seq. (tr. Burnouf,
Introduction, p. 336 seq.); A yu wang tchouan, T 2042, k. 3, p. 111b (tr. Przyluski, Asoka, p. 308; A yu wang king, I
2043, k. 6, p. 149b. - The Buddha foretold to Ananda the birth of Upagupta five hundred years after the parinirvana:
Asyaiu Anaiula Mathurayani mania varsasataparinirvritasya ...arliattvani saksatkarisyanti.
The Mpps has Upagupta as a patriarch (acarya), calling him the great teacher of JambudvTpa. However, Upagupta
ippcai i i Hi lii ii ih i' in h in! in tin i isti idin onrccs ( il I ,n liil in >i kIui n inaya, Fou fa
tsang yin yuen king) where he is in fourth i 'I l. il'tci vlahal i >-apa nancl >i'l . nr I i Hi intil i (cl Przyluski,
Asoka, p. 46-48). The Mahasamghika Vinaya and the Ceylonese chronicles do not include him in the succession of
teachers. We may note once again that the Mpps is inspired by the Sarvasti\ adin and northern sources.
Upagupta was from the north; his monastery was at Mathura (cf. Watters, Travels, I, p. 306-309; Taranatha, p. 17) where
his relics were preserved.
It was noted a long time ago that Upagupta's role w ith regard to Asoka in the Sanskrit sources is the same as that of Tissa
Moggaliputta in the Pali and Ceylonese sources. See Lav., Histoire, II, p. 137.
was young.° u ° one day Upagupta went to her cell to ask her about the behavior of the Buddha when he
was visiting. He had previously sent a pupil to the bhiksunl and this pupil had announced to the bhiksunl:
"My great teacher Upagupta is coming to see you to ask about the behavior of the Buddha when he was
visiting." Then the bhiksunl filled a begging bowl (patrd) with oil (taila) and set it under the fan at her
door; she wanted to test the behavior of Upagupta and his mindfulness. When Upagupta entered, he pushed
the fan at the door and a little bit of oil spilled. Upagupta sat down and asked: "You knew the Buddha. Tell
me: what was his manner when he was visiting." The bhiksunf replied: "When I was young, I saw the
Buddha entering a village {grama) one day; the crowd shouted "There is the Buddha!" I followed the
crowd outside and saw the Buddha's rays (rasmi). As I bowed before him, a gold pin (suvarnasuci) that I
had on my head fell to the ground into a thick bush. Immediately the Buddha illumined it with his rays and,
as all the dark corners were visible, I found my pin. As a result of that I became a nun." Upagupta
questioned her further: "And, at the time of the Buddha, what were the manners (Tryapatha) and courtesy
of the bhiksus?" She replied: "At the time of the Buddha, there was a group of six impudent, shameless,
wicked monks (satlvcugFya hhiksu). But, in regard to their manners, they were better than you; I have
noticed that today. When they passed through my door, at least they did not spill my oil. Depraved though
they were, they knew the rules of monastic courtesy. Walking, standing, sitting or lying down, they missed
nothing. Although you are an arhat endowed with the six abhijnas, you do not measure up to them on this
point." Hearing these words, Upagupta was very ashamed.
This is why [Ratnakara] advises {Samantarasmi]: "Be careful." Mindfulness is the mark of an honest man.
Why does he advise him to be mindful? The bodhisattvas [of the Saha] universe are difficult to vanquish,
to attain, to destroy and to meet. Like the great king of the lions (mahasimharaja), they are difficult to
vanquish and destroy; like the king of the elephants (pdndaragajaraja) or the king of the nagas (nagarajd)
or like a great fire, they are difficult to approach. These bodhisattvas actually have the great power of merit
(punya) and (prajha) wisdom. Those who wish to conquer them and destroy them will not succeed and will
risk perishing themselves. This is why they are 'difficult to approach'.
Question. - Given their great qualities, their wisdom and their sharp faculties (tiksnendriya), all the great
bodhisattvas are difficult to approach. Why does the sutra attribute this difficulty of access to the
bodhisattvas of just the Saha universe?
Answer. - 7) Because this comment refers only to a bodhisattva of the Ratnavati universe, [namely,
Samantarasmi]. Coming from afar, he will notice that the Saha universe, different from his own, is full of
stones, sand and rubbish; that the bodhisattva is small; in short, that everything there is different; and he
will necessarily have suspicions (avamana). This is why his Buddha [Ratnakara] tells him: "Be very
careful, for the bodhisattvas of the Saha universe are difficult to approach."
sus The A yu wang tchouan, T 2043, k. 5, p. 121b (tr. Przyluski, Asoka, p. 371-372) and the A yu wang king, T 2043, k.
9, p. 163a, have an arhati-bhiksunt v\ ho constantly bothers Upagupta's disciples v\ ilh her reprimands and w ho reproaches
Ihcm for their wrong behavior. This is probably the bhiksunl in question here. Nevertheless, I [Lamottc] have not found
the source from liich tin Ipp li .1 n ilii I »i urcl liken from life.
[130 a] 2) Furthermore, people born in the blissful abodes (sukhasthanaja) often lack exertion (vFrya),
intelligence (medhd) and wisdom (prajna). This is why people of Yu yan lo wei (Uttarakuru) are so happy
that among them there are no monks (pravrajita) or followers of the precepts (Mamadana). It is the same
among the gods.
In the Saha universe, the causes for happiness {sukhahetupratyaya) are rare; there are the three unfortunate
destinies (durgati), old age, sickness, death (jaravyadhimarana), and the exploitation of the soil is arduous.
This is why [its inhabitants] easily feel disgust (nirveda) for this universe; at the sight of old age, sickness
and death, their minds are filled with distaste; at the sight of poor people (daridra), they know that their
poverty is a result due to previous existences (purvajanma) and their minds feel great distaste. Their
wisdom (prajna) and thier keen faculties (tiksnendriya) come from this [disgust].
By contrast, the [Ratnavati] universe is made out of seven jewels (saptaratna) and full of all kinds of
precious trees (ratnavrksa); the bodhisattvas have whatever food (ahara) they desire at will. Under these
conditions, it is hard for them to feel disgust (nirvedacitta); this is why their wisdom is not very sharp
(tiksna). If a sharp knife (tiksnasastra) is left in good food, the knife becomes rusty because although these
foods are good, they are not suitable for the knife; but if the knife is rubbed with a stone and scoured with
grease and ashes, the rust disappears. It is the same for the bodhisattvas. Those born in a mixed (misra)
universe [like the Saha universe] have sharp knowledge and are hard to approach (durdsada); on the other
hand, for those who spare their efforts (alpayatna), suffering has too much power and too much effect. To
feed a horse and not to ride it is to make it useless.
3) Finally, in the Saha universe, the bodhisattvas abound in skillful means (upaya); this is why they are
difficult to approach. This is not the case in other universes. Thus the Buddha said: "I remember that in the
course of my previous existences {purvajanma) I offered a thousand human existences in order to save
beings, but although I was endowed with qualities (guna), the six perfections (satparamita) and all the
Buddha attributes (buddhadharma), I was unable to do the work of a Buddha. Indeed, it was only by
skillful means (upaya) that beings are saved." This is why the bodhisattvas in the Saha universe are
difficult to approach (durdsada).
Sutra: Then, taking these thousand-petalled golden lotuses from the hands of Ratnakara, the bodhisattva
Samantarasmi went away with innumerable monastic (pravrajita) and householder (grhastha) bodhisattvas
and with youths and maidens (Atha khalu Samanatarasmir bodhisattvo Ratnakara sya tathdgatasya sakasat
tan saharapatti i vaniavahhasani pa va nkhyn ' ttvaih pra\ itau grhasthais
ca durukuir ddrikdhliis ca sdixlham prakrdntah).
Sastra. - Question. - The bodhisattva Samantarasmi is able to travel by virtue of his great power
(mahabala) and his abhijnas; but how can the monastic (pravrajita) and householder (grhastha)
bodhisattvas, as well as the youths (daraka) and maidens (darika), travel about? The Ratnavati universe
[which they had to traverse in order to get to the Saha universe] is large. [What power have they borrowed
for that purpose?] Is it their own power? Or is it the power of the Buddha Ratnakara, or that of the
bodhisattva Samantarasmi, or that of the Buddha Sakyamuni?
Answer. - They use all of these four powers at the same time:
a. These monastics and householders can be non-regressing (avaivartika) bodhisattvas endowed with the
five superknowledges (pancdbhijndsamanavdgata). By means of the four bases of miraculous power
(rddhipada), they have cultivated the causes and conditions (hetupratyaya) that must be fulfilled during
earlier lifetimes (purvajanma) in order to be able now to go to the Buddha Sakyamuni. Therefore they use
their own power (svabala).
b. They also use the power of the bodhisattva Samanatarasmi. Why? Those whose power is too [130 b]
weak travel by means of the power of the bodhisattva Samantarasmi. Thus, when a cakravartin king wants
to fly, his army (caturangabala), his officers (rdjakulddhyaksa) and his stables accompany him in the sky;
because his qualities (guna) are great, the cakravartin king can make his whole suite fly along with him. It
is the same here: those whose power is too weak travel by way of the power of the bodhisattva
Samantarasmi.
c. They also use the power of the Buddha Ratnakara.
d. Finally, the rays of the Buddha Sakyamuni illumine them. If they had no other power, the rays of the
Buddha Sakyamuni would be enough for them to be able to travel. What more can be said if they use the
other three sources?
Question. - Why does the bodhisattva Samantarasmi not come alone, instead of at the head of a numerous
troupe?
Answer. - Because he needs a suite like a king who is traveling. Besides, the bodhisattva Samantarasmi and
the Buddha Sakyamuni choose among people. How is that? In the great assembly there are two groups:
those who fulfill the causes and conditions [permitting them leave], go; those who do not fulfill the causes
and conditions, stay.
Question. - Why is this bodhisattva accompanied by householder (grhastha) and monastic (pravrajita)
bodhisattvas, youths (daraka) and maidens (darika)!
Answer. - The Buddha's disciples (buddhasravaka) are of seven categories: bhiksu, bhikshum, saiksa,
sramanera. sramaneri, upasaka and upasika. The upasakas and upasikas are the lay people {grhastha); the
five other categories are monastics (pravrajita). Among the monastics and the lay people there are two
kinds, the old and the young. The young are the youths (daraka) and maidens (ddrikd); the others are the
old.
Question. - [Only] the old ones should go. Why do the young ones go also?
Answer. - It is a matter of worthiness (guna) and not of age (ayus). The person who lacks qualities (guna)
and practices evil (akusalaclharma) is small despite their great age; the person who has the qualities and
practices the good (kusaladharma) is great despite their youth.
Furthermore, these young ones come from far away and those who see them admire the fact that, despite
their youth, they are able to come from so far away to hear the Dharma.
This also proves that both young and old are capable of acquiring (pratipad-) the Buddhadharma, which is
different from the heretical sects (ffrthikadharma) where the brahmins alone are able to follow the rules
and those who are not brahmins cannot. In the Buddhadharma, there is no old or young, no insiders
(ddhydtmika) and no outsiders (bdhya); everybody can practice the Dharma. In the same way, when
medicine (bhaisajya) is given, it is the cure to be attained that rules everything; whether the sick person is
noble or commoner, old or young, is of no importance.
Sutra: [Before leaving], they express their homage (puja), their respects (satkara), their esteem (gurukara)
and their veneration (mdna) to the Buddhas of the east.
Sastra: Question. - They pay all their homage to the Buddhas of the east. But these Buddhas are very
numerous; when will they be finished and when will they be able to start off for the Saha universe?
Answer. - These bodhisattvas do not pay homage in the manner of gods or men; they carry out the rituals
(pujadharma) current among bodhisattvas. Here is what it consists of: They enter into samadhi and they
draw forth innumerable bodies from their own upright body (rjukdyam pranidhaya); they create all kinds
of objects of worship (jnijuclruvyu) and fill the Buddha [130 c] universes with them. They are like the naga
king who, at the moment of acting, raises his body from the water and causes rain to fall over an entire
continent (dvipaka).
Question. - These bodhisattvas wish to go to the Buddha Sakyamuni. Why do they pay homage to all the
Buddhas on their way?
Answer. - The Buddhas are a supreme field of merii (paramapunyaksetra); those who pay homage to them
receive a great reward (vipdka). It is like the man who cultivates his field well and reaps a big harvest of
grain. The bodhisattvas see the Buddhas and the worship (puja) which they pay to these Buddhas brings
them the reward of the Buddhas. This is why they pay homage to them.
Furthermore the bodhisattvas always feel a respect (satkara) towards the Buddhas comparable to that of a
son for his parents; they have received instructions (desanadharma) from them and they have received
samadhis, dharanls and miraculous powers (rddhibala) of all kinds from them. Out of gratitude, they pay
homage to them. Thus, in the Fa houa king (Saddharmapundarfka), 9 the bodhisattva Yo wang
° uy The bodhisattva Sarvasattvapriyadarsana, who would later become the Buddha Bhaisajya-raja, had heard the
iddh nui ipun 1 in 1 from the mouth of the Buddha Candrasurya imalaprahasrasn and iiiircd. Ihanl lo this I I m
the sarvarupasaindarsaiiasainadlu "faculty of making all forms appear". Out of gratitude, he cremated his own body to
pas homage to the Tathagata and the Saddharmapundanka, the legend is told in the Saddharmapundarika, chap. XXII, p.
415-418; here is the original text:
(Bhaisajyaraja) who had acquired the samadhi called 'Faculty of making all forms appear', had this thought:
"How am I going to worship the Buddha and the Saddharmapundarlka?" At once, he entered into samadhi,
rose up into the sky, and by the power of samadhi, caused a rain of lotuses made of seven jewels
(saptaratnapundarika), perfumes (gandha), banners (pataka) and bouquets (cldiiia) to pay homage to the
Buddha. When he came out of samadhi, he felt that it was not enough, so for twelve hundred years he fed
on [inflammable] perfumes and drank perfumed oil (gandhataila); then he clothed himself in divine white
garments and burned his own body (svam kayam prajvalayamasa). He made the following vow
(pranidhdna): "May the rays of my body illumine Buddha universes (buddhalokadhatu) as numerous as
the sands of eighty Ganges (asTtiganganadTvalukdsama)." In these Buddha universes as numerous as the
sands of eighty Ganges, all the Buddhas congratulated him (sadhukaram dadati sma): "Good, good, O son
of noble family: the offering of the body (atmabhavaparityaga) is the foremost offering. Abandoning
royalty (rdjyaparitydga), abandoning a wife and children (bhdrydputyaparitydga), does not equal a
thousandth part of it." For twelve hundred years the body [of the bodhisattva] burned without, however,
becoming consumed (tasydtmabhdvasya dipyato dvadasavarsasatany atikrdntdny abhuvan na ca
prasamam gacchati sma).
Finally, the worship of the Buddhas (bua lhapuja) a a gli ry (j as), merit (pi vd) and immense
benefits (artha); all the bad dharmas {tiki harma lisa i I l\ ante) and all the roots of good
(kusalamula) show progress {vrddhim apadyante); in the present {iha) lifetime as in future {paratra)
lifetimes, one is always rewarded for this worship; long afterwards, one comes to be able to do the
Buddha's work. Thus, the worship of the Buddha assures all kinds of immense benefits. This is why the
bodhisattvas pay homage to the Buddhas.
ACTX
Sutra: With flowers ipuspa), incense (dhupa), garlands {mdlyd), powders (curna), perfumes, aromatics and
unguents {vilepana), with robes {civara), flags {dhvaja) and banners {pataka), he went to the Buddha and,
having approached him, bowed his head to the Buddha's feet (bhagavatah pddau sirasabhivandya) and
stood to one side (ekante 'tis(hat).
Sastra: Question. - It should be said that "he saluted the Buddha"; why is it said that he 'bowed his head to
the Buddha's feet"?
Answer. - 7) The head (siras) is the noblest part of the human body, for it is the seat of the five feelings
{ruci) and is on top (urdhvam); the feet (padci) are the lowest part, for they tread an impure soil and are
below (adhah). This is why, by saluting the lowest part to the noblest part, the homage is doubled.
[131 a] 2) Moreover, there are three salutes, lower {avara), medium {madhya) and higher {agra). The
lower salute consists of joining the hands (anjalipata); the medium salute, of kneeling (Janupata); and the
higher salute, of prostratin<» (sirasa pranipatanam). Saluting [someone's] feet with one's head is the highest
Sa ca Sarrasattvapriyadarsana hodhisattvah... sarrarupasaiiidarsanani saina sainadluni pratdahhate sma «/ pascad
dvadasanani varsasataiutm atyayat prasanto 'hliat.
homage (puja) there is. This is why, in the Vinaya, the newer bhiksus (navabhiksu) take the feet of their
superior in their two hands and bow their head to them (sirasabhivandanti).
Question. - There are four bodily positions (kdyerydpatha); sitting (dsana), standing (sthdna), walking
(gamana) and lying down (sayana). Why does the bodhisattva stand (tisthati) to one side (ekdnte)!
Answer. - Since he has arrived [near the Buddha], he does not have to walk; since he wants [to pay] his
repect (satkdra) and his homage (puja), he cannot lie down before him. That is very clear; have you
finished questioning me? The sitting position is not very respectful, whereas the fact of standing up is a
mark of respect (satkdra) and homage (puja).
Moreover, in the Buddhadharma, mendicant heretics (tirthikaparivrdjaka) and all lay people
(avaddtavasana) sit when they come to the Buddha. The heretics, belonging to a foreign (paradharma)
sect, sit out of suspicion (avamdna) of the Buddha; the lay people sit in their quality of hosts (dgantuka).
But the five assemblies, attached to the Buddha by body and spirit, remain standing near him. The arhats in
possession of the Path (n Irgaprdpta) uch i iriputra laud il i ina, Subhuti, etc., have done what
needed to be done (krtakrtya); this is why they are permitted to sit down [before the Buddha]. The others,
although they have obtained the threefold Path, are not permitted to sit down because their great work has
not yet been completed and their fetters (bandhana) have not yet been cut. [The arhats] are like the king's
ministers (rdjdmdtya) who, because of their great qualities, have the right to a seat. Even though there may
be lay people (avaddtavasana) amongst these bodhisattvas, they remain standing before the Buddha
because they have come from far away to pay homage to him.
Sutra: [Samantarasmi] said to the Buddha [Sakyamuni]: "The tathagata Ratnakara asks you if you have but
little anguish (alpdbddhatd) and but little suffering (alpdtankatd), if you are healthy (yatrd) and alert
(laghutthdnatd), if you are strong (bald) and if you are enjoying your ease (sukhavihdratd);^® he offers to
the bhagavat these golden thousand-petalled lotuses" (Samanatarsmir bodhisattvo bhagavantam
Sdkyamunim ehul avoccii: Ratiulkaro h/uigavdn hliagavantam alpdbdclacllwtdm pciriprcchaty alpdtankatdm
ydtrdm laghuttlidnatdm helium siikluivilidrardm ca pariprccliati. imdni ca bhagavatd Ratndkarena
tathagatenasuvtinuinirhlidsdni sahasrapattrdni paclmdni prcsitdni bhagavatah).
Sdstra: Question. - The Buddha Ratnakara is omniscient (sarvajnd); why does he ask if the Buddha
Sakyamuni has but little anguish and but little suffering, if he is healthy and alert, strong and in a joyful
810 Traditional form of greeting which is also found in the Pali texts (e.g., DIgha, I, p. 204; II, p. 72; III, p. 166;
Majjhima, I, p. 437, 473; Ahguttara, III, p. 65, 103; Milinda, p. 14) as well as in the Sanskrit (e.g., Mahavastu, I, p. 154;
Vn iJ in i ilaka, 1, p. li ( I! L 90 idclharm pundanl u i 129; Di i dana ] ! ( vlaha ulpalli no
6284-6288). In Pali > t i i , i net
Answer. - 7) It is customary for the Buddhas to ask about what they already know. It is told in the
Vinaya°H that the bhiksu Ta eul (corr. ni) kia (Dhanika) had built a hut of red brick (lohitakathalla). The
Buddha, who had seen it and knew about it, nevertheless asked Ananda: "Who did that?" Ananda replied:
"It is the son of the potter {ghatabhedanaka), the monk (pravrajita) called Dhanika. He had made a hut of
leaves which was destroyed over and over again by the cowherders (gopdlaka); he built it three times, three
times it was destroyed. That is why he made this brick house." The Buddha said to Ananda: "Destroy this
brick house. Why? Because if the heretics [see it], they would say: When the Buddha, the great teacher,
lived here, the Dharma came from a dirty place. "° 12 Similarly, in many other places, the Buddha asks
about what he already knows.
2) Moreover, although the Buddha is omniscient, he conforms to worldly customs (lokadharmdnuvartana).
Like men, the Buddha asks questions. Born among men, the Buddha takes on the conditions of human life:
like them, he suffers cold (sita), heat (usna), birth (jdti) and death (marana); like them, he has the habit of
asking questions.
3) Moreover, in the world, it is not suitable for nobles to have dealings with the peasantry, but [131 b] the
Buddhas, who are of equal power (samabala), can question one another.
4) Finally, the Ratnavati universe is a pure fairy-land (visuddhavyuha); the Buddha [Ratnakara] who
governs it has a big body (kdya), his color (varna), his aspect (samsthdna) and his rays (rasmi) are large. If
he did not ask Sakyamuni, people would think that he scorned him. Besides, Ratnakara wants to show that
although he surpasses Sakyamuni in various points, in his Buddha universe, the color of his body and his
rays, yet he is absolutely identical with him in regard to wisdom (prajnd) and miraculous power
(rddhibala). That is why he questions him.
Question. - Why does he ask him if he has but little anguish (alpdbddhatd) and but little suffering
(alpdtankatd)?
Answer. - There are two kinds of torments (alpdbddatd), those having an external cause
(bdhyahetupratyaya) and those having an internal cause (adhyhcltmikahetupratyaya). The external torments
are cold (sita), heal (usna) I in i (' ' hii M Iscl) inn (catiira / i ords (asi), kni
(sastra), clubs (danda), catastrophes (patana), ruins (avamardana); all these external accidents of this kind
are called torments (ddddha). The inner torments are the 404 illnesses (vyddhi) that come from improper
food or irregular sleep; all the sicknesses of this kind are called inner sicknesses. Corporeal beings (dehin)
all have to suffer from these two kinds of illnesses. This is why [Ratnakara] asks Sakyamuni if he has but
little torments and suffering.
811 The story of Dhanika (in Pali Dhaniya) is told in all the Vinayas in respect to the second parajikadharma: Pali
Vinaya, III, p. 40-41 (tr. Horner, I, p. 64-67); Wou fen liu, T 1421, k. 1, p. 5b; Mo ho seng k'i liu, T 1425, k. 2, p. 238a;
Sseu fen liu, T 1428, k. 1, p. 572b; Che song liu, T 2435, k. 1, p. 3b; Ken pen chou... p'i nai yo, T 1442, k. 2, p. 633c. As
always, it is the Che song liu or tliL in i li hi ' ina\ i Hi it the Mpps follows here.
°^ The Buddha forbade the construction of brick huts because the baking of the bricks, which involved the death of
small insects, made iiu: hul impure. What Buddha reproaches Dhanika for is cruelty: cf. Pali Vinaya, III, p. 41: na hi
nama tassa mo I i iht sd bhavissati.
Question. - Why does he not ask him if he has no torment and suffering instead of asking if he has but little
torment and little suffering?
Answer. - The wise (aryd) know very well that the body (kdya) is a source of suffering (duhkhamula) and
that it is never without sickness. ^ Why? Because the body is an assemblage (samghdta) of the four great
elements (caturmahdbhuta) and the earth (prthivi), water (upas), fire (tejas) and wind (vdyu) that compose
it are naturally in disharmony and struggle with one another. Thus an ulcer (gundu, visphotu) is never
without pain, but it can be improved, not cured, by a medicinal unguent. It is the same for the human body:
always sick, it requires constant care; with care, it can live; deprived of care, it dies. This is why
[Ratnakara] cannot ask [Sakyamuni] if he has no suffering because [he knows that Sakyamuni] is a victim
[as everyone is] of these eternal outer torments (bdhydbddha) which are wind (cmila), rain (varsa), cold
(sita), heat (usna). Moreover, there are the four bodily positions (kdyerydpatha), sitting (dsana), lying
down (sayana), walking (gamana) ind indinj I ma), [which Sakyamuni is obliged to take up like
everyone else]. To stay sitting for a long time is a great torment; prolonging the other three positions is also
painful. This is why Ratnakara asks him if he has but little torment and suffering.
Question. - It would be enough to ask if he has but little torment and suffering; why does he also ask if he
is healthy (ydtrd) and alert (laghutthdnatd)!
Answer. - Although he is convalescing, the sick person has not yet recovered his health; this is why he asks
if he is healthy and alert.
Question. - Why ask him if he is strong {bald) and enjoying his ease (sukhavilidrard)?
Answer. - There are convalescents who can walk, sit and rise, but whose strength is not sufficient to allow
them to fulfill their occupations, to work, to carry light (laghu) objects and to lift heavy (guru) things; this
is why he asks if he is strong. There are people who, although convalescent and able to lift heavy things
and carry light things, do not, however, enjoy their ease (siikluivilidratd); this is why he asks if he is
enjoying his ease.
Question. - If one is well and strong, why would one not enjoy one's ease?
Answer. - There are poor people (daridra), frightened people and sad people who do not enjoy their ease;
this is why he asks if he is enjoying his ease.
Moreover, there are two ways of asking: asking about the physical (kdya) and asking about the mind
(citta). Asking someone if they have but little suffering or torment, if they are healthy, alert and strong, is
asking about the physical; asking if they are enjoying their ease is asking [131 c] about the mind. All the
inner (ddhydytmika) and outer (bdhya) sicknesses are called bodily sicknesses (kdyavyddhi); desire (rdgd),
hatred (dvesa), envy (Frsyd), avarice (iiultsarya). grief (arati), fear (hliaya), etc. as well as the 98 anusayas,
the 500 paiyavasthdnas and all types of wishes, hopes, etc., are called sicknesses of the mind (cittavyddhi) .
In order to ask someone about each of these sufferings, we ask them if they have but little torment and little
suffering, if they are healthy and alert, if they are strong and if they are enjoying their ease.
' 1 -' See Hobogirin, Byo, p. 232: "The body, this illness."
Question. - We can ask a man (manusya) these questions but not a god (deva), and still less, a Buddha.
Answer. - The body of the Buddha is of two types: 1) the body of emanation (nirmdnakaya), created by
the superknowledges (abhijnd), 2) the body born from father and mother (pitrmatrjakdya). Since the body
born from father and mother takes on (ddaddti) the conditions of human life, it is not like the gods {deva)
and we can question it according to human customs.
Question. - All noble individuals (drya) have a detached mind (nirdsangacitta); they do not cherish their
body and do not hope for a long life, do not fear death and do not hope to be reborn; under these
conditions, what use is it to ask about their health?
Answer. - It is in order to conform to worldly customs {lokadharmdnuvartana) that [Samantarasmi]
borrows the rules of human etiquette to question [Sakyamuni]. Sending someone to ask, [as Ratnakara]
does], also conforms to human etiquette.
Sutra: Having taken these golden thousand-petalled lotuses, the Buddha Sakyamuni then threw them to the
Buddhas of universes of the east as numerous as the sands of the Ganges (Atha khalu bhagavdn
Sdkyamunis tathdgatas tdni saluisruptittruni siivariuinirb/ulsdni padnuini grlutvcl vena tc purvasyclin clisi
ganagaiHulFvalukopamcsu lokadlultu.su buclcllui bluigtivantas tcna prdksipat)
Sastra: Question. - The Buddha is unsurpassable; why does he throw flowers as offering to the Buddhas of
the east? When the Buddha had found the Path, he said to himself: "Men are not worthy of reverence; their
capacities are imperfect (asiddha). Indeed, who has the right to veneration in heaven and on earth in the ten
directions? I, who would like a teacher (sdstr), will follow him." Then Brahma devaraja and the other gods
said to the Buddha: "The Buddha has no superior (anuttard), no-one surpasses the Buddha." The Buddha
himself also saw with his divine eye (divyacaksus) that in the three times (tryadhvan), in the ten directions
(dasasis), whether in heaven or on earth, that no-one surpassed the Buddha; and he said to himself: "I shall
practice the Mahaprajnaparamita; now that I have become Buddha that is what I will venerate, that is what
will be my teacher. I must respect, honor and serve its Dharma." - There was a tree called Hao kien
(Sudrdha ?); this tree was at the center of the earth and had hundreds of branches and leaves; in one day it
grew a hundred cubits (yydmd). When this tree was fully grown, it sought out [another] big tree to take
shelter under it. There was, at that time in the forest, a deity (devatd) who said to the Hao kien tree: "There
is no tree in the world bigger than you; all the trees should take shelter in your shadow." It is the same for
the Buddha; for innumerable incalculable periods (asamkhyeyakalpa), he dwelled in the bodhisattva levels
(bodhisattvabhumi); one day when he was seated under the tree of enlightenment (bodhivrksa) on the
diamond throne (vajrdsana), he discovered the true nature of all dharmas (sarvadharmalaksana) and
attained the state of Buddha. Then he said: "Who is the venerable individual who can serve [132 a] me as
teacher? I wish to honor him, respect him and serve him." Then Brahma devaraja and the other devas said
to the Buddha: "The Buddha has no superior {anuttard); nothing surpasses the Buddha."
Question: [If Sakyamuni is truly the greatest of beings], why does he want to worship ipuja) the Buddhas
of the east?
Answer. - 7) The Buddha is without superior (anuttara); in the three times (tryadvan), the ten directions
(dasadis), in heaven and on earth, no-one surpasses him; nevertheless, the Buddha can pay worship ipuja)
[to what he considers good]. Puja is higher (agra), medium (madhyd) and lower (avard). Lower puja
consists of honoring someone who is beneath oneself; higher puja consists of honoring someone who is
above oneself; medium puja consists of honoring someone who is one's equal. The puja performed by
Sakyamuni with regard to the other Buddhas is medium puja. [But Sakyamuni has also practiced the lower
puja in the following circumstance]:
When the bhiksunl Ta ngai tao (MahaprajapatT) and her five hundred arhatT-bhiksunls entered nirvana all
at the same time, 4 the upasakas in possession of the threefold Paths set up five hundred beds (khatva) for
the bhiksunls and the Caturmaharajikas set up a bed for MahaprajapatT, Buddha's step-mother and nurse
(dhatri). The Buddha himself placed before her body an incense-burner to burn perfumes in her honor. He
said to the bhiksus: "Help me to pay homage to the body of my nurse." Immediately, these arhat-bhiksus,
each by virtue of his bases of miraculous power (rddhipada), went to Mount Mo li (Malaya) to gather
'cows'-head'(?) sandalwood (gosvrsacandana) and other aromatics and helped the Buddha build the funeral
pyre. [For the Buddha,] this was a lower puja; in this way, without looking for any reward, the Buddha
practices the pujas.
2) Moreover, the Buddha alone can pay [suitable] puja to the Buddhas, for other people do not know the
qualities (guna) of the Buddhas. A stanza says:
[Only] the wise can esteem the sciences,
The books of the sciences and the joy of of the sciences.
[Only] the wise know the sciences
Like the snake [alone] knows the snake's feet.
This is why the Buddhas, who are omniscient (sarvajna), can render [suitable] puja to the omniscience [of
the other Buddhas].
3) Finally, the Buddhas of the ten direction- (dasadigbu Idha) irom age to age have aided (upakaroti) the
Buddha Sakyamuni:
° 14 Mahaprajapati Gautami, the Buddha's aunt, hearing the Buddha sneeze, wished him a long life. The Buddha
remarked (hat wishing harmony in the samgha would be preferable. Then Gautami made the resolution lo enter nirvana
I' i ii > im mid li i >hi nil hi lie hundi d iii,.) hi i '! nil' ii il >ii illi hci G ul mil i n ill i i U Id in tin
Pali Apadana, II, p. 529-543; Tseng yi a han, T 125, k. 50, p. 822b-823b; Ta ngai tao pan ni yuan king, T 144, p. 867a-
869b; Fo mou pan ni yuan king, T 145, p. 869b-870c; Ken pen chou... tsa che, T 1451, k. 10, p. 248a-249a (tr. S. Levi,
ii ighosa le Suti llatnl Ira et ses sources, IA, Jul.-Aug. 1908, p. 161-163); Ta tchouang yen louen king, T 201 (no. 68),
k. 14, p. 333a-338a (tr. Huber, Sutralamkara, p. 386-402). - The scene is located either at Kapilavastu in the
Nyagrodharama (T 1451) or at VaisalT in the Kutagarasala (T 125, T 144, T 145, and Hiuan tsang, Si yu ki, T 2087, k. 7,
p. 908b28.
a. When Shakyamuni was a bodhisattva of the seventh bhumi (saptamabhumi), ' ' he saw that all dharmas
are empty (sunya), nonexistent (asat) without birth and cessation (anutpanndniruddha); seeing this, his
mind became detached from all the universes (lokadhdtu), he wanted to abandon the practice of the six
virtues (satparamita) and enter into nirvana. He was like a man who, in a dream (svapna), builds a raft
(kola) to cross over a big river and who feels sick because his arms are tired; in the middle of the stream,
he wakes up out of his dream and says to himself: "Why do I imagine there is a river and that I must cross
it?", and at once his worries have disappeared. In the same way, the Bodhisattva, having reached the
seventh bhumi, acquired acceptance of the teaching of nonarising (anupattikadharmaksdnti), the course of
his mind (cittapravrtti) stopped and he wanted to enter into nirvana, [When Sakyamuni was at this stage],
the Buddhas of the ten directions emitted rays (rasmi) that illumined the Bodhisattva's body, and with their
hands caressing his head, they said to him: "O son of good family (kulaputra), do not make that decision;
remember your previous vow (purvanidhdna) which was to save beings. Without any doubt, you know
emptiness (sunya), but beings are not liberated (vimukta) nevertheless. You must again gather the qualities
(guna) necessary ro convert them. [132 b] Do not enter (read mo jou) into nirvana. You have not yet
acquired the golden-colored body (suvarnavarnakdya) or the thirty-two major marks (laksana) or the
eighty minor marks (anuvyanjand) or the immense rays (apramdnarasmi) or the thirty-two acts [producing
the marks]. You have just attained the Dharma relating to non-production (anutpddadharmaparydya). Do
not rejoice too much." Then, hearing the encouragement of the Buddhas, the Bodhisattva returned to his
first decision, practiced the six virtues and set himself to save beings. Such was the help (upakara) that he
received from the Buddhas when he reached Buddhahood.
b. Moreover, when the Buddha had attained enlightenment, he had this thought: "This Dharma is very
profound (gambhira); beings are stupid (mudha) and of little merit. What can I do, I who have also been
born into the world of the five poisons (kasaya)!" Having had this thought, [he said to himself]: "Within
this single Dharma, I will make three parts (bhdga), and these parts will be the three Vehicles (yana) by
means of which I will save beings."" *" When he had thought thus, the Buddhas of the ten directions
(dasadigbuddha) caused rays to appear and they congratulated him, saying: "Good, good! When we were
in the world of the five poisons, we too divided the single Dharma into three parts to save beings." Then
hearing the voices of the Buddhas of the ten directions, the Buddha felt great joy (ananda) and cried:
"Homage to the Buddhas (namo buddhdnaf)." This is how the Buddhas of the ten directions rendered him
great services by encouraging him and helping him several times, and [now], out of gratitude for all these
benefits, [Sakyamuni] offers flowers to the Buddhas of the ten directions.
The highest [Buddha] qualities do not exceed those of these lotuses. Why? Because these precious lotus
bouquets (padmaratnasamcaya) are the result of the same Buddha qualities; these are not ordinary lotuses
born on the water. Samantarasmi, a dharmakaya bodhisattva dwelling on the tenth bhumi, had brought
these lotuses and scattered them on the Buddha Sakyamuni. The latter, knowing that the Buddhas of the ten
' 13 The story of the Bodhisattva in the seventh bhumi is told in the Mahavastu, 1, p. 127-136.
'!" It is the rule that the Buddhas preach the three Vehicles if they appear when the human life-span is decreasing from
me hundred to ten years, i.e., when the five poisons are very strong (cf. Kosa, III, p. 193).
directions are a supreme field of merit (paramapunyaksetra), in turn offers [these same lotuses] whose
value is thus doubled. Why? Because it is a Buddha who is offering them to the Buddhas.
Actually, in the Buddhadharma, there are four types of gifts (cluksinu): 1) The donor (ddyaka) is pure and
the recipient (pratigrdhaka) impure; 2) The donor is impure and the recipient is pure; 3) Both the donor
and the recipient are pure; 4) Both the donor and the recipient are impure. ' Here the gift is made to the
Buddhas of the east; it is doubly pure, both [in its donor and its recipient]; its merit {puny a) is very great.
This is why Sakyamuni offers flowers to the Buddhas of the ten directions.
Question. - But the noble individuals [who make such meritorious gifts] will receive no reward because
they will not be reborn; why do you say that the merit of this gift is very great?
Answer. - Although there is no-one to enjoy this merit, it is great in itself; if anyone enjoyed it, the reward
(yipakd) would be infinite (apramand). But the noble individuals (drya) who renounce entering into
nirvana because they know that conditioned dharmas are transitory (anitya) and empty (siinya), also
renounce this merit. It is like a glowing bubble of molten gold (hemapinda) the beauty of which the eye
perceives but which cannot be touched because it would burn the hand.
Those who have an ulcer (ganda, visphotd) need an unguent ( vilepana); those who do not have an ulcer do
not need a remedy. Similarly, corporeal beings (dehin), ever tormented like an ulcer by hunger (ksudh),
thirst (pipdsd), cold (sfta) and heal (usna), use clothing, coverlets, food and [132 c] a temperate climate,
which are like the unguent spread on an ulcer. If, out of love for the remedy, they do not use it to get rid of
their ulcer, they would be stupid (mudha), for when one does not have an ulcer, the remedy is useless. The
Buddhas think of the body as an ulcer and, because they have rejected this body-ulcer, they do not rejoice
over the reward [for their merits]. This is why, although they have great merits, they do not receive the
reward (vipdka).
Sutra: These lotuses thrown [by Sakyamuni] fdled the Buddha universes of the east as numerous as the
sands of the Ganges (tais ca padmair ye purvasydm c/isi ganghaiHulFvalukopama huchlhalokadhdtavas te
paripurna abhuvan).
Sastra: Question. - How can these few lotuses fdl so many universes?
° 1 ' Here the Mpps is reproducing a well-known canonical formula, withoul any reference, which may be found with
some variations in DTgha, III, p. 231-232; Majjhima, III, p. 256; Anguttara, II, p. 80; Ta tsi fa men king, T 12, k. 1, p.
228c27: Tchong a han, T 26, (no. 180), k. 47, p. 722b28. - Here, ace. to DTgha (I.e.) is the Pali formula: Catasso
dakkliinarisuddluyo. Attli' avuso dakkluna dmayakato visujjhati .... visuj/liati patiggdhakato ca. - The Majjima and
Anguttara explain thai, in order to be pure, the donor and the recipient must be moral and of good quality (silava
kalyanadhammo).
Answer. - 7) This is due to the Buddha's abhijnas; by virtue of the first eight, he can transform the dharmas
at will, make small that which is big, make big that which is small, make heavy that which is light, make
light that which is heavy, freely move at will without hindrance, shake the great earth, realize wishes. The
great arhats possess all these eight masteries (vasita); this is why the Buddha is able to fill the universes of
the east that are as numerous as the sands of the Ganges with just a few flowers.
2) Moreover, he wants to show beings that the future reward of their merits (andgatapunyavipaka) is
comparable to these few lotuses that succeed in filling the universes of the east.
3) Finally, he encourages the bodhisattvas of the east by saying to them: "Plant your merits in the Buddha-
field (buddhaksetra) and the reward you will receive will be like these lotuses that fill innumerable lands.
Although you come from afar, you will have joy (anandd). The reward for encountering this great field of
merit (punyaksetra) is immense.
Sutra: on each of these lotuses there were bodhisattvas°l° sitting cross-legged preaching the six virtues.
Those who heard them were settled in supreme perfect enlightenment (tesu ca padmesu bodhisattvah
vcihkciin hacklliYcl \ ill. yais ca sattvaih sa
dharmah srutas te niyatcl ahliDvan anutiardydin samyaksambodhau).
Sastra: Question. - The Buddha had previously created thousand-petalled lotuses of precious stones by the
rays of his tongue; on each of them there was a seated Buddha; why are there bodhisattvas now seated on
each lotus?
Answer. - Previously, it was a question of lotuses created by the Buddha; this is why there were Buddhas
seated on them. Here it is a matter of lotuses offered by the bodhisattva Samantarasmi; this is why there are
bodhisattvas seated on them. Previously, beings had to see the seated Buddhas in order to be saved; here
they must see bodhisattvas in order to be saved. These bodhisattvas, seated cross-legged, are preaching the
six virtues, and those who hear them are settled in supreme perfect enlightenment.
Sutra: These monastic (/ ; n ind la i ta) bodhisatl i youths (d ika) and maidens (darika),
bow their heads down to the feet of the Buddha Sakyamuni. Each of them express their worship (sampujd),
obedience (satkard), veneration (sammana) and respect (gurukara). These bodhisattas, monastic and lay,
youths and maidens, one after another, by the power of their roots of good (kusalamula) and their merits
(punya), pay homage to Shakyamuni, Buddha, [133a] arhat, samyaksambuddha.
" In the Sanskrit text of (he I'aiica\ imsati (p. 14), it is Buddha forms (haddhaviyj-aha ) that are seated on the lotuses.
Sdstra: Here are the stanzas which they spoke:
The Path which the arhats have travelled
The Buddha has followed in the same way (tatha - clgata).
True nature and point of arrival
Are the same for the Buddha and not otherwise.
The aryas speak the truth
The Buddha also speaks the truth.
This is why the Buddha is given
The epithet of Tathagata: "Speaking the Tuth".
With patience as breast-plate, his mind is firm;
With exertion as bow, his strength is bent [like the bow]
With the sharp arrow of his wisdom
He slays his enemies (ari + han), pride, etc.
He has the right to the complete worship
Of gods and men;
The is why we give to the Buddha
The epithet oiArhat: "Having the Right".
He knows full well the true nature of suffering,
He also knows the origin of suffering,
He knows the true nature of the cessation of suffering
He knows also the Path of cessation of suffering.
Completely (samyak) understanding the four truths,
He dwells in equanimity (sama) and is immovable.
This is why, in the ten directions,
He is call Samyak - sam- buddha.
He has obtained the three subtle sciences (vidya).
He is also endowed with pure practices (carcuia):
This is why we call this Bhavgavat
Vidya - carana sampanna: "Endowed with the Sciences and Practices."
Knowing all the dharmas
He has followed (gata) the marvellous Path.
At the desired time, he preaches skillfully
Because he has compassion for all.
He has destroyed old age, sickness and death,
To arrive at the place of safety (yogaksema):
This is why we give to the Buddha
The epithet oiSugata: "Well-Gone".
He knows the origin of the world
And also knows its cessation;
This is why we give the Buddha
The epithet of Lokavid: "Knower of the World".
In regard to samadhi, slla, prajna and sampasyana,
He has no equal and, still less, no superior;
This is why we give to the Buddha
The epithet of Anuttara: "Without Superior".
He saves beings with his great compassion,
He guides them with his good Dharma;
This is why we give to the Buddha
The epithet of Purusasamyasdrathi: "Guide of Beings to be Converted".
With wisdom free from the passions (klesa),
He preaches supreme deliverance (yimoksd);
This is why we give to the Buddha
The epithet of Sdstd devamanusydndm: "Teacher of Gods and Men".
[133 b] That which is mobile or immobile in the threefold world,
Perishable or imperishable,
He learned under the bodhi tree;
This is why we call him Buddha.
Sutra: In the south {daksinasydrn disi), beyond universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges
{gariganadTvdhtkopamcin loktidhdtiin atikrcimyd) and at the extreme limit of these universes (tebhyo yah
sarvavasanikah), there is the universe called Li yi ts'ie ycou (Sarvasokapagata): its Buddha is named Wou
yeou to (AsokasrT) and its bodhisattva Li yeou (Vigatasoka). - In the west (pascimciyam disi), beyond
universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges and at the extreme limit of these universes, there is a
universe called Mie ngo (Upasanla): its Buddha is called Pao chan (Ratnarcis) and its bodhisattva Yi pi
(Caritramati). - In the north (uttarasyam disi), beyond universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges
and at the extreme limits of these universes, there is the universe called Cheng wang (Jayendra) and its
bodhisattva To cheng (Jayadatta). - In the region of the nadir (adhastad disi), beyond universes as
numerous as the sands of the Ganges and at the extreme limit of these universes, there is the universe
called Houa (Padma);" 1 " its Buddha is called Houa to (PadmasrT)°™ and its bodhisattva Houa chang
(Padmottara). - In the region of the zenith (uparishtdd disi), beyond universes as numerous as the sands of
the Ganges and at the extreme limit of these universes, there is the universe called Hi (Nanda); its Buddha
is called/// to (1 fanda rT) and its bodhisattva To hi (Nandadatta).
In these universes everything occurred just as it did in the east.
Sastra: Question. - According to the Buddhadharma, the directions (dis) do not really exist. Why? Because
they are not included (samgrhfta) in the list of the five aggregates (skandha), the twelve bases of
consciousness (ayatana) and the eighteen elements (dhatu) [that embrace the totality of existent things].
Neither is there any mention of the directions in the four baskets of the Dharma (dharmapitaka).°^
Similarly, one would search in vain for the causes and conditions {hetupratyaya) that would make these
directions into real things. Then why speak here about the Buddhas of the ten directions and the
bodhisattvas of the ten directions?
Answer. - It is in order to be in harmony with the traditions of conventional language (lokasamvrti) that we
speak of directions; but regardless of the search, their reality cannot be demonstrated.
819 This universe is called Chan "Good" in the Chinese text, but Padma "Lotus" (Chin. Houa) in the original Sanskrit of
(he Pahcavimsati, p. 17. This last reading is the proper one (note that Ihc names of all She universes are feminine: this is
why Padma ends with '3).
820 This Buddha is called Chan to "Beauty of the Good" in the Chinese text (Chin. Houa to), but PadmasrI "Beauty of the
Loins" (Chin. Houa to) in the Sanskrit text of the Pahcavimsati, p. 17. This last reading is the proper one.
Understand: there is no mention of these directions as truly existent things {dharma).
Question. - How can you say that they do not exist? If the directions are not in your four baskets of the
Dharma (dharmapitaka), they are mentioned in my six baskets of the Dharma; °^2 if they are not contained
in your list of skandhas, ayatanas and dhatus, they are contained in my own dharanls.
Moreover, by virtue of its nature of existence, the dharma 'direction' exists and is eternal. Thus it is said in
a sutra: "The place where the sun rises is in the eastern direction; the place where the sun sets is in the
western direction; the place where the sun travels to is in the southern direction; the place where the sun
does not travel to is in the northern direction." The sun has a threefold conjunction (samyoga): prior
conjunction, actual conjunction and later conjunction. It is divided according to direction. The first
direction with which it enters into conjunction is the east, then the south, and finally the west. The place
where the sun does not travel is not counted. The specific nature (laksana) of the direction is the distinction
between 'there' and 'here', between 'here' and 'there'. If the directions did not exist, these distinctions would
be wrong and, since these distinctions constitute the specific nature of the direction, there would be no
directions.
Answer. - That is not correct. Mount Sumeru is situated at the center of the four continents; the sun makes
a circuit around Sumeru and [successively] lights up the four continents (dvipaka). When it is noon
(madhydhna) in Uttarakuru (northern continent), the sun is rising in Ptirvavideha (eastern continent)
because, for the inhabitants of Ptirvavideha, [Uttarakuru] is east. - When it is noon in Purvavideha (eastern
continent), the sun is rising in JambudvTpa (southern continent) because, for the inhabitants of JambudvTpa,
[Purvavideha] is east.°^3 Therefore there is no initial term. Why? Because according to the course [of the
sun], all directions are [successively] east, south, west and north. °^4 Therefore it is not true, as you said,
that "the place where the sun rises is the eastern direction, the place where the sun sets is the western
direction, the place where the sun travels to is the southern direction and the place where the sun does not
travel to is the northern direction." Moreover, the place with which the sun does not enter into conjunction
[namely, north] is not a direction because it is lacking the specific characteristic (laksana) of direction
[namely, conjunction].
Question. - I was speaking of 'direction' in reference to one single country and you are basing your
objection on four countries [namely, the four continents]. This is why the direction of the east is not
without initial term.
° 22 We know from k. 11, p. 143c that these four dharmapital i n >ii i pil ' ill in pil , i t lie
Abhidharmapitaka and the Mixed Basket (Tsa tsang): for this last one, see Przyluski, Concile, p. 119-120. As for the six
1 i I i (hi i tin mi i urn I II uii Hi j li In ii ! i i mi hi
° 2 -' These fads are taken from the Cosmology of the DFrgha, Tch'ang a han, T i inn. 30), k. 22, p. 147c: "When it is noon
in JambudvTpa, the sun is setting in Purva\ idcha, rising in Godaniya, and ii is midnight in Uttarakuru. - When it is noon in
Uttarakuru, the sun is setting in Godaniya, rising in Purvavideha and ii is midnight in JambudvTpa. - When it is noon in
I'iirva\ idcha, the sun is setting in Uttarakuru. rising in JambudvTpa and ii is midnight in Godaniya." - Sec also kosa, 111.
p. 157.
°^ 4 Tch'ang a han, T 1 (no. 30), k. 22, p. 147c: When JambudvTpa is east, Purvavideha is west. When JambudvTpa is
west, Godaniya is cast. When Godaniya is west, Uttarakuru is cast. When Uttarakuru is west, Purvavideha is east."
Answer. - If, in one single land, the sun enters into conjunction with the east, that is limited (antavat); if it
is limited, it is not eternal (anitya); if it is not eternal, it is nol univcrasl (vycipin). This is why the directions
have only nominal existence and are not realities.
Sutra: Then this trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu was transformed into jewels; it was strewn with flowers,
decorated with fabrics, banners and bouquets, adorned with perfume-trees and flowering arbors (Atha
khalo ay am trisdliasraiiuihdsdliasro lokadhatu ratnamayah samsthito 'bhut puspdbhikirnah.
n\ asaktapatniclamcikcilapo ganclluivrksaih puspavrsais copasohhita 'bhut).
Sastra: Question. - What is the miraculous power (rddhibala) that transforms the earth into jewels?
Answer. - This transformation (parinamd) is brought about by the immense miraculous power of the
Buddha. People versed in spells (mantra) and magic (maya), the asuras, the nagarajas, the devas, etc., are
able to transform small objects, but no-one other [than the Buddha], including Brahma devaraja, has the
power to transform the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu into precious jewels. When the Buddha is in the
fourth dhyana, the four minds of metamorphosis (nirmanacitta) adorn (alamkrtd) the
trisahasaramahasahasralokadhatu, with its flowers, perfumes and trees, in all its superiority. All beings in
perfect agreement [at this sight] turn their minds to the good.
Why does the Buddha adorn this universe? In order to preach the Prajnaparamita and also to honor the
bodhisattvas of the ten directions who have come to visit him accompanied by gods and men. When the
master of a household invites a noble individual, he adorns his home; if it is the leader of a country, he
adorns his kingdom; if it is a cakravartin king, he adorns the four continents (caturdvipd); if it is Brahma
devaraja, he adorns the trisahasramahasahasralokadhatu. The Buddha himself adorns his universe for the
chiefs of the universes of the ten directions - universes as numerous as the sands of the Ganges - i.e., for
the foreign bodhisattvas (desantai abodhisattva) and for the gods and men who have come to visit him. He
also wants people, on seeing the fairyland of the metamorphoses (parindmavyuha) that he has produced, to
produce the great thought of enlightenmeni (mahdbodhicittd), feel pure joy (visuddhamuditd), be inspired
by the thought of enlightenment to accomplish the great acts (mahakarma), obtain a great reward
(mahavipaka) from these great acts, profit from this great reward by producing the great thought once
more, and thus, successively (paramparavrdhi) they succeed in attaining supreme perfect enlightenment
(anuttarasamyaksambodhi). This is why the Buddha adorns this universe and transforms it into jewels.
Question. - What is meant by jewels (ratna)l
Answer. - There are four types of jewels: 1) Kin (suvarna). gold: 2) Yin (rajala. riipya), silver; 5) [134 a] P'i
lieou li (vaidurya), lapis-lazuli; 4) P'o li (sphatika), crystal.
There are four more kinds of jewels. •" 1) gold; 2) silver; 3) lapis-lazuli; 4) crystal; 5) Tch'o k'iu
(musaragalva) cat's-eye; 6) Ma nao (asmagarbha) emerald; 7) Tch'e tchen tchou (lohitamukti), red pearl.
[Note by Kumarajiva: This pearl is very precious; it is not Chan lion (pravada. vidruma), coral].
There are yet other jewels: 1) Mo lo k'ie t'o (marakata), emerald [this pearl is extracted from the beak of the
golden-winged garuda bird; it is green in color and it counteracts poisons); 2) Yin t'o ni lo (indrahfla),
sapphire [pearl of celestial azure]; 3) Mo ho ni lo (mahanlla) 'great blue' pearl; 4) Po mo lo k'ie
(padmaraga), ruby [bright red pearl]; 5) Yue cho (vajra) diamond; 6) Long tchou (nagamani), naga pearl; 7)
Jouyi tchou (cintamani), precious stone that grants all the wishes of its owner; 8) Yu, jade; 9) Pei (sahkha)
conch; 10) Chan hou (pravada, vidruma), coral; 11) Hou p'e (trinamani) amber, etc. All these are called
jewel (ratna).
These jewels are of three types, human jewels (manusyaratna), divine jewels (divyaratna) and bodhisattva
jewels (bodhisattvaratna).
Human jewels have minimum power and have merely a bright pure color; they combat poisons (visa),
demons (pisaca), and shadows (tamas); they also combat all the sufferings of hunger (ksudh), thirst
(pipdsd), cold (sita) and heat (iisna).
Divine jewels are larger and more powerful; they always accompnay the gods; one can give orders to them
and communicate with them; they are light and not heavy.
Bodhisattva jewels surpass the divine jewels; they combine the benefits of human and divine jewels. They
allow all beings to know the place of their death and birth, their history (niddna), iheir beginning and their
end (purvaparanta): it is like a clear mirror (parisuddadarsa) where a person can contemplate their
reflection. Moreover, the bodhisattva jewels can emit the various sounds of the Dharma (dharmasvara). As
for the crown jewel (ratnamukuta) that adorns then head, it rains di i ija), I mners (patakd),
bouquets of flowers (puspaddma) and all kinds of offerings (pujdpariskdra) onto the Buddhas of the
innumerable universes of the ten directions; it is a way of paying homage to the Buddhas. It also rains
down clothing (vastra), coverlets, beds (sayana), seats (asana) and means of livelihood (ajiva): it causes
everything that answers the needs of beings to rain down and gives them to beings.
These various jewels remove the poverty (ddridrya) and the suffering (duhkha) of beings.
Question. - Where do these marvellous jewels come from?
Answer. - Gold (siivtirna) comes from rocks, sand and red copper. - [Red] pearls (lohitamukti) come from
fish stomachs, bamboo and snakes' heads. - Naga pearl (nagamani) comes from the heads of nagas. - Coral
(pravada, vidruma) comes from petrified trees found in the sea. - Conch (sahkha) comes from insects. -
Silver (rajata, riipya) comes from burned rocks. - The other jewels, lapis-lazuli (vaidurya), crystal
(sphotika), etc., all come from caves. - The Cintamani comes from the Buddha's relics (buddhas anr a);
°^- ) Classic list of seven jewels, occurring in, e.g., Milinda, p. 267; Divyavadana, p. 297; Saddharmapundarlka, p. 151;
Sukhavatlvyuha, v. 16; Samgraha, p. 318; Mahavyutpatti, no. 5943 seq. - See Burnouf, Lotus, p. 319-321; Finot, Les
when the Dharma will have disappeared, all the Buddha's relics will change into cintamani. Similarly, at
the end of a thousand years, water will change into crystal (sphotikd) pearls.
All these jewels are the usual jewels found among mankind; but the universes adorned (alamkrta) by the
Buddha have far more value and cannot be obtained even by the gods. Why? Because they come from the
great qualities of the Buddha.
The perfumed trees {gandhavrksa) are: 1) the A Vie leou (agaru), 2" Agalloche [tree with the perfume of
honey]; 2) the To k'ie leou (tagaru), ^ ' Tabernaemonatana coronaria [very perfumed tree]; 3) the Tchan
fan (candana), sandalwood, and other species of perfumed trees. °
The flowering trees (puspavrksa) are: /) the Tchan p'ou (jambhu), Eugenia jamholana [tree with white
flowers]; 2) the A chou kia (asoka) Jonesia asoka [tree 'without a care']; 3) the P'o ho kia lo [tree with red
flowers], and others.
Sutra: The universe Houa tsi (Padmavati) has been mentioned which belongs [to the Buddha] P'ou houa
(Samantakusuma), where the bodhisattva Miao to (Manjusri), the bodhisattva Chan tchou yi (Susthitamati)
and other very powerful bodhisattvas dwell (tadyathdpi ndma Padmavati [134 b] lokadhdtuh
Samanatakusumasya tathclgatasya buddluiksetram yatra Manjusrfh kuiiulrabhuiah prativasati Susthimatis
ca bodhisattvah anyc ca mahaujaskd bodhisattvah).
Sdstra. - Question. - Why compare [the Saha universe thus transformed] with the Padmavati universe?
Answer. - Because the [Padmavati] universe always has pure lotuses and the [Saha] universe, after it has
been transformed, resembles it. In making comparisons (upamand). we customarily compare the smallest
with the biggest; in this way we compare the beauty of a man's face with the full moon (purnamdsa).
Question. - But in the ten directions, there are other pure universes (parisuddhalokadhdtu) such as the
Ngan lo (Sukhavati) of the Buddha A mi t'o (Amitabha), etc. Why take only the Padmavati universe as
comparison?
Answer. - The universe of the Buddha Amitabha is not like the Padmavati universe. Why? Although the
Buddha [Lokesvararaja] guided the biksu Fa tsi (Dharmakara) in the ten directions to contemplate the pure
° 2 " In Sanskni a i i i 4 i i m i iiika I, p. 24; Divyavadana, p. 158, 315, 327); in Pali, akalu or again (cf.
Milinda, p. 338). The word also occurs in Hebrew and Greek.
827 Most likely Tagara, attested in Vinaya, I, p. 303; Itivuttaka, p. 68, Milinda, p. 338, Divyavadana, p. 158, 327.
These gandhavrksa furnish precious essences used as perfumes. Milinda, p. 338, tells of a man whose body is
anointed with agaru, tagara, tallsaka (Flacourtia cataphracta) and red sandalwood
Uikalutagwatiilisakalojitacandanulittagatto).
universes, the qualities (guna) and the power {bald) of this bhiksu were [too] weak and he was unable to
see the supremely pure universes. °^" This is why the universes are not alike.
Furthermore, when the Buddha [Sakyamuni] transforms the [Saha] universe, he gives it a resemblance
(sdclrsva) to the PadmavatT universe. This is why it is compared here to the PadmavatT universe.
Question. - There are other great bodhisattvas such as P'i mo lo k'i (Vimalaklrti), Kouan che yin
(Avalokitesvara), Pien ki (Samanatabhadra), etc. Why mention only the bodhisattvas who reside in the
[PadmavatT] universe and be limited to citing the bodhisattvas Wen chou che li (ManjusrT) and Chan tchou
yi (Susthitamati)?
Answer. - From all the pores of his skin {ekaikaromakupa), the bodhisattva Samantabhadra ceaselessly
emits buddha-universes with Buddhas and bodhisattvas who fill the ten directions; as he transforms beings,
he has no fixed residence. Dividing and transforming his body, the bodhisattva ManjusrT penetrates into the
five destinies (pancagati) and sometimes acts as a sravaka, sometimes as a pratyekabuddha and sometimes
as a Buddha. It is said in the Cheou lengyen san mei king (Suramgamasamadhisutra):"-^ "The bodhisattva
ManjusrT in the past was the Buddha Long tchong tsouen (Naga... ); for 72 koti of lifetimes, he was a
pratyekabuddha"; his previous abodes [can be listed and described]. But for the bodhisattva
Samanatabhadra, it is impossible to count, describe and know his [successive] abodes because, if he abides
anywhere, it is in all the universes [without distinction]. This is why the sutra does not mention him here.
Besides, by speaking of 'other very powerful bodhisattvas', the sutra refers to Samantabhadra and all the
great bodhisattvas as a whole (sdmdnyatah).
°^ y See Mpps, k. 50, p. 418a-b: "The Buddl , / u (Lol raraja) led ih bhil u I (Dharmal i in
Ihc ten directions and showed him the pure universes." This bhiksu is none other than the future Buddha Amitabha whose
births are told in the Sukhavativyuha (ed. .VI. .Vliillcr and B. Nanjio in Anecdota Oxonicnsis, vol. I, part II, Oxford, 1883;
tr. M. Miiller, Buddhist Mahdyana Sutras, SBE, vol. 49, part II) and its six Chinese translations (T 360, 361, 362, 363,
364, 310[5]). The Hobogirin, Amida, p. 26, summarizes this work as follows: At the time of the Buddha Lokcsvara. the
53rd Buddha after Dipamkara, a king iiad the thought of enlightenment from having heard the sermons of this Buddha. He
abandoned his throne and became a monk under She name of Dharmakara. Upon She prayer of this monk, the Buddha
Lokcsvararaja showed him the good and the evil of gods and men and the merits and demerits of the different realms of
the 210 million Buddha realms which he showed him. The monk spent five kalpas reflecting in order make a choice and
to acquire the pure practices with which one can adorn a Buddha realm; then he went again to the same Buddha and
pronouced the 48 vows, the main one of which is the ! 8th, formulated by T 360 as follows: "Supposing that I succeed in
becoming Buddha, if beings of the ten directions, believing in me and loving me wholeheartedly, make the wish to be
reborn in my realm to the extent of ten thoughts, if they are not reborn there, may I not receive supreme perfect
enlightenment, except only for those guilty of the five sins of immediate retribution run! slander against the holy
Dharma." [In the Sanskrit text, this vow is the 19th and is formulated in v. 8, no. 10 as foil
/ ; rest odium inihi »/j. Then he a urn it d
the practices so that his vows were realized and he became the perfect Buddha Amitayus in his western paradise where he
he has already reigned for ten kalpas.
830 Chou leng yen san mei king, T 642, k. 2, p. 644a.
Sutra: Then the Buddha knew that all the universes, with the world of the gods (devaloka), the world of
Brahma (brahmaloka), the sramanas and the brahmanas, the gods (devd), the gandharvas, the asuras, etc.,
and the bodhisattva-mahasattvas who are to accede to the state of Buddhahood (kumarabhuta) were all
gathered together (samnipatita).
Sastra: Question. - The miraculous power (rddhibala) of the Buddha is immense (apramana). If the beings
of the ten directions all came to the assembly, all the universes would be empty (sunya); on the other hand,
if they did not all come, the immense power of the Buddha would betray its powerlessness.
[134 c] Answer. - It is impossible that they all come. Why? Because the Buddha universes are infinite
(ananta) and limitless {apramana ). If all [their inhabitants] came [to the assembly], they would be limited.
Besides, the ten directions each have their Buddhas who also preach the Prajnaparamita. Thus, in the 43rd
chapter of the Prajnaparamita, a thousand Buddhas appear in each of the ten directions and they each
preach the Prajnaparamita."-^ 1 This is why it is impossible that all beings come [to Sakyamuni's assembly.]
Question. - If the Buddhas of the ten directions each preach the Prajnaparamita, why do the bodhisattvas of
the ten directions [visit Sakyamuni]?
Answer. - As we have already said in the chapter on the coming of bodhisattva Samantarasmi, these
bodhisattvas come on account of Sakyamuni.
Moreover, these bodhisattvas were bound by their previous vow (juirvapranic/lidna): "If there is a place
where the Prajnaparamita is being preached", [they had said], "we will go there to listen and pay homage";
this is why they come from afar to accumulate the qualities (guna) themselves. They also want to give a
teaching (desana) to beings, [saying to them]: "We have come from afar to pay homage (puja) to the
Dharma; why do you, who live in this universe, not pay homage to it?"
Question. - The Buddha does not cling (sakta) to the Dharma. Why then does he manifest his miraculous
power (rddhibala) seven times to guide beings to come together as a crowd?
Answer. - The Prajnaparamita is very profound (gambhira), difficult to know (durjneya), difficult to
understand (durvigahya) and inconceivable (acintya). And so, [when the Buddha wants to preach it], he
gathers the great bodhisattvas together around himself. Thus the beginners (navayanasamprasthita),
[seeing these grave bodhisattvas listening to the Buddha], are led to have faith in his teaching, for if people
do not believe the words of ordinary men, they should have faith [in the evidence] of grave important
people.
°-' 1 This concerns the 43rd chapter of the Pancavimasati by Kumarajiva, T 223, k. 12, p. 310a: "By his miraculous
power, the Buddha saw in the east a thousand Buddhas who were preaching the Dharma. Having such and such
characteristics and such and such names, they were preaching this chapter of the I'rajhaparamita In the south, the west,
and the north, in the four intermediate directions ant! al (he zentih and the nadir, there were groups of a thousand Buddhas
of this kind in each of the directions.
Question. - [When the sutra describes the assembly surrounding the Buddha], why does it mention the
world of gods {<* i I. th Id ('Mara i < » /) and the world of Brahma (brahmaloka)! It should
simply say "the world of gods and men": that would be enough. Among the ten [traditional] epithets [of the
Buddha], there is one that calls him 'Master of Gods and Men' {sdstd devamanusydndm); this is why gods
and men should be mentioned here.
Answer. - The gods who have the divine eye {divyacaksus) the divine ear {divyasrotra), keen faculties
{tiksnendriya) and wisdom (prajna) have flocked together voluntarily. This is why the sutra mentions the
world of gods (devaloka) here.
Question. - The 'world of gods' already includes the Maras and the Brahmas. Why does the sutra mention
the Maras and the Brahmas separately?
Answer. - There are three great leaders"-^ among the gods:
7) Sakra devanam indrah is the leader of two classes of gods, [the Caturmaharajika and the Trayastrimsa].
2) King Mara is the leader of six classes of gods of the world of desire or kamadhatu: [Caturmaharajika,
Trayastrimsa, Yama, Tusita, Nirmanarati and Paranirmitavasavartin] .
3) Mahabrahma is the leader of the Brahmaloka.
Question. - The Yama, Tusita and Nirmanarati gods also have leaders; why are there only three leaders of
the gods?
Answer. - [A special mention is reserved for these three great gods because they are the best known]:
Sakra devanam indrah resides above ground like the Buddha; he is constantly near the Buddha; he is very
famous (yasas) and people know him well.
King Mara constantly comes to bother the Buddha and he is leader of the whole world of desire
{kamadhatu); the Yama, Tusita and Nirmanarati gods all depend on him. Moreover, the gods of the
threefold woi Id I Ih tuk I u includ dl rhii I in 'the world of gods', and as Mara is leader of [the
first of these worlds], namely, the world of desire {kamadhatu), the sutra mentions [135 a] him separately
(prthak). Finally, Mara usually torments the Buddha, but today he has come to listen to the Prajnaparamita
so that the other people may progress (yrdh-) in their faith {sraddha).
Question. [The second world, i.e.,] the form realm {rupadhdtu), involves a large number of heavens; why
does the sutra mention only the brahma heaven {brahmaloka) here?
Answer. - The gods who surpass [the Brahmaloka] are without awareness and do not like distractions
{cittaviksepa); they are less well-known. on the other hand, the Brahmaloka, which does involve the four
kinds of consciousness (yijhand), is easily known. Besides, the Brahmaloka is closer. Furthermore, Brahma
832
In order to understand the following discussion, the division of (he gods into the six heavens of kamadhatu nd the
heavens of rupadhatu should be remembered. See, e.g., Kosa, III, p. 1-2. K.irfi I. Ko mogi ipln d lua ■ \>
190-198.
is synonymous with the purity of renunciation {vairdgyavisuddhi); by speaking of Brahmaloka here, we
include all the gods of the form realm as a whole ( sdmdnyatah).
Furthermore, the other gods have no entourage. At the beginning of the kalpa, when he was born, Brahma
devaraja was dwelling alone in the palace of Brahma (brahmavimdna) without any companion. Feeling
bored, he thought: "Why should I not give birth to some companions?" At this moment, some Abhasvara
gods whose life had come to an end, were reborn surrounding him as he had wished. King Brahma then
thought: "These gods previously did not exist; they are born according to my wish; I am able to engender
these gods." At the same moment, the Abhasvara gods also on their part had this thought: "We are born
from king Brahma; king Brahma is our fafher."833 . This is why the sutra limits itself to mentioning the
Brahmaloka here.
Finally, the gods of the second, third and fourth dhyanas [i.e., the gods higher than the Brahmaloka who
are identified with the first dhyana], see the Buddha, hear the Dharma or assist the bodhisattvas in the
desire realm (kdmadhdtu), whereas visual consciousness (caksurvijnana), auditory consciousness
(srotravijndna) and tactile (kdyavijnana) exist in the Brahmaloka. *"4 This is why the brahmaloka is
mentioned separately.
Question. - Why does the sutra mention only sramanas and brahmanas and not speak about kings (rajari),
householders (grhapati) and other kinds of people?
Answer. - Wise people are of two kinds, sramanas and brahamanas. The monastics who have left home
(pravrajita) are sramanas; the lay people who remain at home are called brahmanas. " Other people give
° ii This episode which illustrates the naive pride of Brahma is drawn from the Brahmajalasutta: Di'gha, I, p. 17-18, retold
in Dirgha, III, p. 28-29); Tch'ang a han, T 1, no. 21, k. 14, p. 90b-c; ibid. no. 30, k. 22, p. 143a; Fan wang lieou eh eul
kien king, T 21, p. 266b. Here are some extracts from the Pali text:
/ / i I I ' , ha upapannd ti. "
The correspondiii n kril I li n d in full in nti ! o ikh [ LJ hci lie some extracts:
i > tii ii'n i i, i ,i i i ; i i, nnitah. L nil isya sattva
Esvaro ydvat pitrhhuto hhavanam."
For a discussion of this sutra, see P'i p'o cha, t 1545, k. 98, p. 508 seq.
*"4 The six gods of kamadhatu and the gods of the First dhyana (the world of Brahma) who are "different in body and
i n | iii kayasanijhiii) arc direct] in contact with tin I i i Im by mean if their I ulti I his is not the
case for the higher gods who must change their level in order to communicate with material beings. See the theory of
vijhaiuisthiti in ICosa, III, p. 16. In agreement with the < id< i it hould I n illcd that io irding to I In ' i|haptimatrata
school, Sanskrit, the language of the gods, is spoken only among the gods of the first dhyana: from the second dhyana on,
there is no longer any reasoning, therefore no language either (cf. Hobogirin, Bon, p. 1 19).
°-" The ｅxpression 'sramana brahmana' is often used in Buddhist texts; sometimes the sramanas are contrasted with the
brahmanas, sometimes the two words are used together to designate, in a general way, the 'leaders in religious life'. on
this subject, consult the note by T.W. Rhys-Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, II, p. 165, the study of R.O. Franke,
Digiianikaya in Auwahl, p. 305 seq., the information collected in Hobogirin, Baramon, p. 52-54, and the bibliography on
this subject in Lav., Dogme et Philosophie, p. 165-166. Nowadays we have a tendency to think of the s
dissidents and heretics and the brahmanas as orthodox. Actually, - and the pi. cut pa i c of the Mpps n
themselves up to worldly pleasures (lokasukha): this is why the surra does not speak of them. The
brahmanas use wisdom (prajna) and look for merit (punya) those who have left home all seek the Path
(mdrga); this is why the sutra limits itself to talking about the sramanas and brahmanas. We call those of
pure family up to seven generations and who have taken the precepts (silasddana) at the age of six years
brahmanas. - The qualities of the Path and wisdom are found among the sramanas and the brahmanas; this
is why they are spoken of here.
Question. - Why does the surra, which sometimes speaks of 'the realm of the gods' (devaloka), again speak
of 'the gods' (deva) here?
Answer. - The 'realm of the gods' designated the heaven of the Caturmaharajika and Sakra gods; 'Mara'
designated the Paranirmitavasavartin and 'Brahma' gods, the form realm (rupadhdtu). Here the words 'gods'
(deva) means the gods of the desire realm (kdmadhdtu) [who have not yet been mentioned], namely, the
Yamas, Tusitas, Nirmanaratis, the Ngai chen (?), etc. The Ngai chen reside at the top of the six classes of
gods; as their shape and color are very fine, they are called Ngai chen "Admirable Form".°-'6
Question. - Why does the sutra menion only the gandharvas and not the other asuras or the nagarajas?
Answer. - The gandharvas are divine artists who accompany the gods;*" ' their predispositions are gentle
(manjii) but their merits, their qualities and their power are minimal;*" ° they are lower than the devas and
the asuras. ™ They are classed in the asura destiny (asuragati), wheras the nagarajas, 'dragon-kings', are
classed in the animal destiny (tiryaggati).°^ The kimnaras also are divine artists who depend on the gods.
The king of the gandharvas is called T'ong long mo (Druma)°^l [J n the Ts'in language, 'Tree']. Gandharvas
what distinguishes them are less the opinions which they profess than the style of life they adopt. The si
wandering mendicants (prarrajita) while (lie brahmanas are (he pious lav people residing at home (grluista); both groups
come into the category of wise people (prajnavaf).
°3" To my [Lamotte's] knowledgi th Vgai t in not m ntion lei hei It mu t bi rcmcml red th i rigii II
I uddhi m knc\ onh i li ' of heaven occupied b the Caturmaharajika lit i imsa r'ama fusil irmanarati
i d ' i nirmita rtii od 1 p ti v el In order to reach the auspicious number of sc\ en, the Brahmakayika gods of
Ihc Brahmaloka were added, sometimes followed by the Taduttarideva "the gods who are superior to them" (cf. ICirfcl.
Kosmographie der Inder, p. 190-191). No doubt the addition of the Ngai chen responds to a concern of this kind. It was
only later that the seven eelesiia! stahges w ere mulriplied by three and even by four.
° i ' They include in their ranks the heavenly musician in i i 1 h , nd 3uri casa, the d tu 'liter of Timbaru
(DTgha, II, p. 264).
°-'° In order to be reborn among She gandharvas, it is enough to have practiced a lower form of si la (Di'gha, II, p. 212,
271).
<"" The gandharvas form the lower group i lb in hv a kdyd) of gods (DTgha, II, p. 212); they are the subjects of
Dhrtrarastra, one of the four Caturmaharajikadevas (DTgha, III,p. 197)
° 40 The Ahguttara, IV, p. 200, 294, 207, places them together in the great ocean: Puna ca pi tun hi i /<
.... asura naga gandhabba.
° 41 Drama, king of the kimnaras and not of the gandharvas, is completely ignored in the Pali sources, but well-known in
Ihc Sanskrit sources. He appears in the Drumakimnararaja-pariprccha, of which there are two Chinese translations due
respectively to 1 chc Ich'an (I 624) and ICumarajiva (I 625) and one Tibetan translation entitled .1// Ijam cilji rg\-al po Ijon
and kimnaras habitually reside in two places: their usual residence is on the Ten-Jewel Mountain
(dasaratnagiri); but sometimes in the heavens, they play music for the gods. These two types of beings are
not subject to the alternations of high and low. [By contrast], the people who inhabit the four continents
(caturdvipaka) have four different lifespans: those who have a very long life (atidirghdyusa) can live an
incalculable number of years, those who have a very short life (city alp ay us a) live only ten years. ^The
asuras are malevolent (dustacitta) by nature and quarrelsome, but they do not break the precepts (sila) and
cultivate merit. °43 They are born in dwellings at the edge of the ocean and also have cities and palaces. 4
The asura kings are named P'i mo tche top'o li (Vemacitra asurinda)°45 anc j i h eou \ (Rahu). 4 "
It is said" 4 ' that once Rahu asurinda wanted to swallow Yue (Candima, god of the moon). The devaputra
Candima, frightened, went at once to the Buddha and spoke this stanza:
pas €us pa, Mdo XII, 6 (Csoma-Feer, p. 3253; OKC, no. 824, p. 314). The Saddharmapundarika, p. 4, knows four
kimnara kings: Druma. Vlahadharma. Sudharma and Dharmadhara. - But Drama is best known from the adventures of his
daughter, the kimnan Vlanohara, captured by the hunters of king Sucandrima, wed by prince Sudhanu (Sudhana), pursued
by her father-in-law Subahu, retrieved in (lie Himalaya, by her husband and finally brought back in triumph to Hastiapura.
This story, where Drama plays a very minor role, occurs in the following sources:
Sanskrit sources: Mahavastu, II, p. 94-115; Snkimnarudtaka; - Avadanakalpalata. ch. LX1V, vol. II, p. 318-413:
Sudhanakimnaryavadana: - Bhadrakalpavadana, chap. XXIX.
Chinese sources: Lieou tou tsi king, T 152, no. 83, k. 8, p. 44b-46b (tr. Chavannes, Contes, I, p. 292-304); - Ken pen chou
... yao che, T 1448, k. 13-14, p. 59bl6-64c25.
Tibetan sources: Schiefher-Ralston, Tibetan Tales, p. 44-74.
Iconography: Barabudur: A toucher. Notes d'archeologie houddliique, BliFEO, IX, 1909, p. 12-18 and fig. 6-9; -
ig irjunikonda: J. Ph. Vogel, The Man in the Well aid some otliei i i I at Nil i da, RA I
1937, p. 119-121 and pi. XXXVI.
° 42 In Uttarakuru, the human life is a thousand years; in Godanlya, five hundred > cars: in Purvavideha, two hundred and
fifty years; in Jambudvipa, it is incalculable ai She beginning of the cosmic age, but diminishes pi ogrcssively down to ten
years at the end of the kalpa. Cf. Kosa, III, p. 172.
° 4 -' on the role of the asuras in Buddhism, see Hobogirin, Ashura, p. 172.
844 Their dwellings are described in Tch'ang a han, T 1, k. 20, p. 129b-130a.
° 4 ' Asurinda is a common name designating a chief or a king of the asuras; it is sometimes applied to Vemacitra,
sometimes to Rahu.
° 4 " The last character, lo, is superfluous and should be removed.
° 4 ' Here the Mpps is quoting the Candimasutta, bui its texl differs both from the Chinese version of the Tsa a han, T 99 ,
no. 583, k. 22, p. 155a-b) cf. T 100, no, 167, k. 9, p. 436a) and the Pali version of the Samyutta, I, p. 50 (tr. Kindred
Sayings, 1, p. 71- 72; Geiger, 1, p. 80-81). To faciliate the comparison, here is the translation of Tsa a ham and the Pali texl
of the Samyutta:
Tsa a han, T 99, k. 22, p. 155a: Thus have I heard. once the Buddha was dwelling ai Sravasti in the Jetavana, in the
garden of Anathapindada. At thai time, Rahu. king of the asuras. was blocking Candima, the devaputra. Then full of
tenor, Candima devaputra came to the Buddha and having bowed his head to the Buddha's feet, stood aside and spoke
these stanzas of praise to the Buddha:
"Homage to you, great hero
Who triumphs over all your obstacles.
I am exposed to suffering,
That is why I take refuge [in you].
I, the devaputra Candima
Take refuge in the Sugata;
May the Buddha, who has compassion for the world
Liberate me from the asura."
Then the Bhagavat replied w ilh these stanzas:
"[The moon] chases away the shadows,
Its rays illumine space
Us brightness (vairocana) is pure
And its rays brilliant.
Rahu conceals you in space:
Quickl r< I< i il> ii hi h li th ppi u tn< < if a llyin liai i isanik i
Rahu, the asura,
Immediately released the moon and went away,
Body sweating
Terrified and ill at ease.
Spirit dimmed, mind troubled,
one might have said like a very sick man.
At that time, an asura named P'o tche (Vcmacitra). seeing the asura Rahu release the moon quickly and return, said the
following stanza to him:
Asura Rahu,
Why do you release the moon?
Body all asweat
You are like a very sick man.
The asura Rahu answered with this stanza:
Gautama cursed me v\ ith a stanza.
If I did not release the moon immediately.
My head would break into seven pieces,
I would suffer the pain of near death.
The asura Vcmacitra continued with this stanza:
That is extraordinary that the Buddha
Knows how to protect the world.
By speaking one stanza, he has forced
Rahu to release the moon.
When the Buddha had finished this sutra, Candima devaputra rejoiced at the words he had heard from the Buddha and,
having bowed to him, he went away.
Samyutta, I. p. 50: Savattluyani vihwati. Tcna klio pana asainayciia Candima dvaputto Kahuna asuriiidciia gahito .... no
ce munceyya Candiinanti
The Tibetan Bkah gyur contains two translations of this sutra entitled 'zha bahi mdo'. The first is in Mdo XXVI, 28 (cf.
Csoma-lxcr, p. 281; OKC, no. 997, p. 384): it is from the Sanskrit and almost corresponds to the translation given by the
Endowed with great wisdom, Buddha Bhagavat,
I take refuge in you. Homage to you!
This Rahu is tormenting me;
I would like to ask the Buddha to grant me his protection out of his compassion.
The Buddha spoke to Rahu with this stanza:
The moon (candra) is resplendent in illumining the shadows,
In space (akasa) it is a great lamp.
Its color is pure white; it has a thousand rays.
Do not swallow the moon; let it go immediately.
Then Rahu, sweating with fear, let go of the moon at once. Vemacitra asurinda, seeing Rahu frightened and
releasing the moon, spoke this stanza:
O Rahu, why then
Do you release the moon in your fear?
You are sweating drops of sweat like a sick man.
What is this fear and this anxiety?
Then Rahu replied with this stanza:
The Bhagavat has given me this commnd with a verse:
If I do not release the moon, my head would split into seven pieces.
As long as I live, I would have no rest.
This is why I release the moon.
Vemacitra spoke this stanza:
The Buddhas are very difficult to meet,
It is only at distant intervals that they appear in the world.
Since [the Buddha] has spoken this pure stanza
Rahu has released the moon.
Tsa a han above; L. Fccr has made a 1'rcnch translation in Lxtraits, p. 41 1-413. The second is
occurs in Mdo XXX, 24 (cf. Csoma-Feer, p. 290; OKC, no. 738, p. 228).
Question, - Why does the sutra not mention the damned (naraka), the animals ( tiryagyoni) and the pretas?
Answer. - The damned (naraka), whose minds are distracted (viksepa) by their great suffering, are not able
to receive the Dharma; the animal (1 tgyo) h 1 (mi Ih I ind of closed mind (avricitta), are
not able to undergo conversion; as for the pretas who are burned by the fire of hunger (ksudh) and thirst
(pipasa), they do not succeed in receiving the Dharma.
[135 c] Moreover, among the animals and the pretas, a few come to hear the Dharma; they conceive
meritorious sentiments but are unable to embrace the Path (marga). This is why the sutra does not mention
them.
Question. -If that is so, then the sutra should not speak of the gandharvas or the asuras either. Why?
Because these beings have already been included (samgrhita) in the preta destiny. °^o
°4° In order to understand the discussion which follows, it should be noted that the 'Questioner' assumed here represents
the side of Katyayantputra and defends die theories of the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma. the latter accept only live gati or
li lini i ih 3am hltipai i I ! k. I I, p. 41 I in thi th \ i ilhful l< Ih in>ni li hi
which, with a few exceptions (DIgha, III. p. 264) recognize only live gati (cf. DIgha, III, p. 234; Majjhima, I, p. 73;
Samyutta, V, p. 474; Ahguttara, IV, p. 459); these are first the three bad destinies (durgati) - the damned (naraka), the
mil i il u i i mi) and the pretas - which must be placed among the eight aksana, the conditions in which it it is
difficult, if not impssible, to see the Buddha or hear the Dharma; these are the two good destinies (sugati) , of the gods
(dev) and of men. humans (inanusya). where it is easy to acquire the Path.
The scholars who accept only five gati find it difficult to place the asuras. Here, our 'Questioner' places them, along with
the gandharvas, in the preta gati, and the Vibhasa (T 1545, k. 172, p. 867a-c) does the same. Others, such as the author of
the Yogacaryabhumi (T 1570, k, 4), places them among (he gods. But most often the asuras belong to several gati at the
same time, either the preta and the animal (Saddharma irtyupasthana, T 721, k. 18-21) or preta, animal and gods
(Gathasutra, cited in T 1723, k. 2), or preta, human, gods and animal (Suramgamasutra, T 945, k. 9). these referencxes
are from Hobogirin, Ashura, p. 42. See also P. Mus, La lumiere sur les six Voies, p. 155, 175, etc.
The position adopted by the Mpps is quite different. II criticizes the San. asti\ adin ICatyanlputra for v\ anting to put into the
lower destiny of the pretas an asura as pious as Punarvasu's mother, a yaksa as famous as Vajrapani, a kimnara as
powerful as Drama. Then it comments, wrong!} it is true, that the Buddha had never fixed at five the number of (he gati
and that such a limitation is the doing of the Sarvastivadin school. Finally, calling on (he Vatsfputriyas as witness, it
proclaims the need for a sixth gati where the asuras and gandharvas "whose merits are many" are placed and which
cannot be confused with (he damned, (he animals and (he pretas who populate the lower gati. Returning later (k. 39, p.
280a) to (his subject, it v\ ill conclude: "Previously, five gati were spoken of: today we must add the asura gati."
Yet other texl i pi i gati in place of five: an isolated passage of the DIgha (III, p. 264); Petavatthu, IV, 11: the
ndhaka and Uttarapathaka of the I th (tin • III p 60 (cf. Rh. D "oints of controversy, p. 21 1 ): th , u! (ikarika
stanza 94, which accepts the asura gati (cf. P, Mus, Six voies, p. 282; T 726, p. 457b); the Dharmasamgraha, v. 135, 346,
372 (but five gati on p. 131).
It may be asked if Nagarjuna of the Mpps, who here shows himself to be a strong partisan of six gatis, is the same as the
nihilist Nagarjuna, author of the Madh. karika who accepts only five (cf. Madh. vrtti, p. 269, 1. 9; p. 304, 1. 4). on the
oilier hand and contrary to the assertion of Poussin in Kosa, III, p. 11, the Nagarjuna of the Suhrillckha lists six gatis (cf.
T 1673, p. 750cl).
Answer. - The Buddha did not say that; why do you claim that they are included in this destiny? That is an
[unwarranted] statement by Kia tchan yen tseu (Katyayanlputra), etc. The asuras have a power equal to that
of the gods, sometimes in their battles, they even win over the gods. °^9 The gandharvas are the divine
artists who enjoy happiness equal to that of the gods; they have wisdom (prajna) and can distinguish the
beautiful from the ugly. Why could they not receive the Dharma of the Path? See for example, in the Tsa a
han (Samyuktagama), in the chapter about the gods (devasamyukta), the story of the mother of the asura
Fou na p'o seou (Punarvasu). "0 T n the course of his travels, the Buddha spent the night in her home;
when the Bhagavat was preaching the ambrosia (amrta) of the holy Dharma, her two children, daughter
and son, began to cry. The mother quieted them with this stanza:
Do not cry, Yu tan lo (Uttarika),
Do not cry, Fou nap'o seou (Punarvasu),
So that I can hear the Dharma and find the path.
You too should find it like me.
This is why we know that, even among the asuras, there are some who obtain the Path.
Furthermore, in the Mahayana, the hero (vfra) Mi tsi kin kang (Guhyaka Vajrapani)°51 prevails over all the
bodhisattvas and all the more, over all men.
°^" The battles between the asuras and the gods are a banal theme told in steretypical fromulas: Digha, II, p. 285;
Majjhima, I, p. 253; Samyutta, I, p. 216, 223; IV, p. 201; V, p. 447; Anguttara, IV, p. 432. - References to Chinese
sources in Hobogirin, Ashura, p. 43.
850 The beginning of the Punabbasusuttanta of which we have the Pali version (Samyutta, I, p. 209-210) and two
Chinese translations: Tsa a han, T 99, no. 1322, k. 49, p. 362c-363a; T 100, no. 321, k. 15, p. 481a. There are a few
diiTrcnccs between these sources:
i i I I I ') i i i ivti i i J l in i i
sossdmi satthuno //
Tsa a han, T 99, k. 49, p. 362c: Thus have I heard. once the Buddha was travelling among she people of the Magadha
kingdom with his great assembly. He came to the place where the mother of the young yaksa Punarva was dwelling and
spent the night there. Then the Bhagavat preached a. sermon about the noble truths (aryasatyapratisainyuktadiianna) io
his bliil i tin .in!, ii mil il ufl tin (d i tin >n in .1 nil un I kl n va) llii ci iium il ufi n.i
i //<■/) and 111 I'll I i in i Ih n l ih un Ululji it). At tl it time, the two
■ Hi lul It i )i il 1 in' It i oi un ii i I' iii i) i dan htci i i I n lo en during the night. Then the mother
of Punarvasu scolded her son and daughter v, ith these stanzas:
"You, Punaravsu, raid you. Uttara, do not cry
So that I may be able to hear the Dharma preached by the Tathagata".
Oilier details may be found in Sarattha, I, p. 309-31 1.
Vajrapani, of the yaksa clan, thunder (vfl/ra)-bearer and tutelary spirit of the Buddha (cf. Lalitavistara, p. 66, 219).
Ii in ill. ids ippi m d in ih i n iiii' il mi ' (Digha. 1. p. 9 Vlajjhima I p . I i and hi importance m i i ith
time. See Foucher, Art Greco-bouddhique, II, p. 48-64.
When T'ouen louen mo (Drama), king of the kimnaras and gandharvas, came to the Buddha to play the lute
and praise the Buddha, three thousand universes were shaken; even Mahakasyapa was uncomfortable on
his seat.°52 How could such individuals be unable to obtain thePath?
When the asurarajas and the nagarajas come to the Buddha to question him about the profound Dharma
(gambhiradharma), the Buddha is flexible to their questions and answers their queries on the profound
meaning (gambhirdrtha). How can you say that they are unable to obtain the Path?
Question. - Of the five destinies (pancagati), the Buddha, teacher of gods and men (sdstd
devamanusydndm), does not include the three bad destinies (durgati). As they have no merit and do not
participate in the Path, the nagas all fall into the bad destinies.
Answer. - The Buddha never spoke explicitly about the five destinies. The five destinies are an invention
of the school of the Chou yi ts'ie >>eoM°"(Sarvastivada), but the school of the P'o ts'o fou tou lou
(Vatsiputriya) accepts the existence of six destinies.
Moreover, there must be six destinies. Why? Because the three bad destinies are exclusively (ekdntena)
places of punishment (pdpasthdna). But if the merits are many and the sins (dpatti) are rare, as is the case
for the asuras, gandharvas, etc., the place of birth (upapattisthdna) should be different. This is why six
destinies must be posited.
Finally, even in the three bad destinies, there are beings who obtain the Path; but, as their merits are rare,
[in general] we say that they do not possess the Path.
As for the ｅxpression 'bodhisattva before acceding to the state of Buddhahood', see what has previously
been said.
°-* 2 The Mpps will return twice to this episode: k. 11, p. 13%, and k. 17, p. 188b lien 1 ruma kin oi li ' inin i
along with 84,000 kimnaras, came to the Buddha to play the lute, sing verses and pay homage to the Buddha, Sumeru,
king of mountains, all the trees on the mountain, the [iconic and animals, all began to dance. The assembly surrounding
the Buddha in hidin v'l .h ' ip , could not sit still on then seats. Then the bodhisattva Tien sin asked the ayusmat
Mahakasyapa: Old man, previously you were foremosl among those w ho observed She (w clvc dhutas: why do you not sit
still on your seat? - Mali i 1 i ipa u < n( I li> II < I in >1 ilv I In i fold iiM I n it l> il i mi i in li il
he bodhi i [Druma], b\ rluc of the fruit ol ribulion of the qualiti ( ) put me in h a state that
I can no longer stay quiet." - This episode is taken from the Drumakimnararaja-paripriccha, T 624, k. 1, p. 351c; T 625, k.
1, p. 371a.
° 5 ^ The order of the words should be corrected; I [Lamotte] read: won tao tcho che chouyi ts'ie yeou pou seng so chou.
